1. Rome: Early Empire
This chapter introduces the Roman Empire. The Empire made a successful attempt at uniting the ancient world under one ruler and one ruling body. The Empire extended from the Tigris and Euphrates River valleys to the Thames in England; it went from the Rhine in Germany to Egypt itself.

2. The Early Empire (27 BCE. – 98 CE.)
Antony and Cleopatra vanquished.
In 31 BCE, Octavian (Augustus) defeated Mark Antony in the Battle of Actium and became the undisputed master of the Roman world as the emperor Augustus.
The battle signaled the end of the absorption of the Hellenistic kingdoms into the Roman empire.
The old Roman Republic ended in 27 BCE. when the Senate conferred on Octavian the title of Augustus.
The Pax Romana:
The peace and prosperity Augustus brought to the Mediterranean world and which prevailed for two centuries is known as the Pax Romana – “Roman Peace”.
During this time a number of public works were commissioned throughout the empire. Augustus and the Julio-Claudians
(27 BCE.–98 CE.)
The Empire established a system of roads that linked its vast reaches. The influence of Rome can be seen in models for government, the law and architecture. The Romans left significant remains and more importantl, substantive architecture throughout its empire. The art that was created acknowledged and praised the Empire. Art also marked the growth of Rome from a Republic into one of the most powerful forces in the ancient world.

3. 43. Portrait of Augustus as General, from Primaporta, Italy, copy of a bronze original, ca. 20 BCE. Marble, 6' 8" high
The youthful portrait of Augustus is idealized in the Greek manner.
The central group depicted on the cuirass (breastplate) shows a Parthian giving back the lost eagle from Carthage to a Roman general.
Taken as a whole, the scene conveys the god-given peace, order and fertility accomplished by the new ruler of the world.
Note the similarity to the Greek Polykleitos’ Doryphoros (Canon), 450 BCE.
**Khan Academy Video

4. Augustus’ “ancester” cupid riding a dolphin:
Detail of Portrait of Augustus as General Primaporta, Italy, copy of a bronze original, ca. 20 BCE. Marble, 6' 8" high
Augustus’ “ancester” cupid riding a dolphin:
The presence of Cupid hints at the emperor’s claim of divine ancestry – tracing back to Venus (Cupid is Venus’ son).
The dolphin itself refers to Augustus’ naval victory at Actium.
The Etruscans were expelled from Rome in the year 509 B.C.E. In 27 BCE the Roman Republic was officially transformed into the Empire with the assumption of imperial power by Augustus. During the Early Empire political ideas of the god-king came into Rome from the eastern segments of the growing empire and gradually transformed both the conception and depiction of the emperor and the emperor’s power. This transformation allowed the emperors (Ceasars) to assume power and control the empire. In the statue of Augustus from Primaporta, that idea of divine relationship can be seen in the cuirass worn by Augustus and the presence of the small putto by his side is an even more clearly visual association with the gods. The putto represents Cupid, son of Aphrodite who is also linked to Rome as the ancestor of Augustus. The military breastplate that covers his torso and the symbolism of the figures on the breastplate referred to Augustus’ victories and the supposed divine origins of the Julian house. The center relief showed the recovery of the Roman military standards from the Parthians, who had captured them during an earlier battle. Augustus had to make military concessions to the Parthians in order to regain the standards, but he claimed the whole episode as a victory. Apollo and Artemis are also shown on his armor, because Augustus claimed to be the new ApolloAugustus also constructed a temple dedicated to Apollo on the Palatine Hill. The rising sun symbolizes a new age and the figure of Mother Earth with a cornucopa and babies, representing Romulus and Remus, also symbolizes the emporer’s association with the Earth and her gifts. The discreet reference to Venus can be traced through the ancestry of Venus herself, who had supposedly conducted a liaison with ascanius, the father of Aeneas. The small putto (cupid) on the dolphin at Augustus’ feet further establishes the divine relationship, which refers to yet another son of Venus, Cupid. This complex iconography served to create the idea and vision that the emporer and his statue, the Primaporta, are symbols of the Empire itself.
Augustus of Primaporta – SmART History video

5. Ara Pacis Augustae ca.13-9 BCE.
Augustus boasted that when he found Rome it was a city of brick, but he transformed it into a city of marble.
The monument that best illustrates the combination of the realistic Roman tradition with the idealization imported from Greece is the Ara Pacis Augustae. One of the allegorical panels shows Tellus, or Earth, with symbols of air and water on either side. the imagery follows a poem composed by the Roman Horace in 17 BCE to commemorate the founding of Rome, but the style, with its full figures, subtle modeling, single plane, strongly reflects Roman realism.
Narrative relief commemorated the emperor’s achievements.
Augustus preferred to be depicted as a defender of peace rather than as a military hero.
Beautifully carved in high relief, this monumental frieze depicts allegorical and legendary scenes, and is ornamented with elegant plant motifs.

6. Ara Pacis Augustae, (panel from the east facade) 13–9 BCE
Ara Pacis Augustae, (panel from the east facade) 13–9 BCE. Marble, approx. 5' 3" high
The relief depicts a seated matron with two animated babies on her lap. Her identity has been much disputed, however the depiction of peace & prosperity is key.

7. Ara Pacis, (detail of the south frieze), Procession of the Imperial Family.
Notice how the children look like children. Portrayal of men with families was politically motivated to increase the birthrate among the nobility.
A comparison of the depiction of the members of the imperial family from the Ara Pacis with the figures from the Parthenon frieze shows the drapery of the Greek figures falls gently and quietly in the folds that stress repeated calm verticals. While the draperies of the Roman figures are much more active, swinging this way on one figure, that way on another. In the Greek piece, the carving seems dry and the folds shallow. The flat neutral background is allowed to appear between the Greek figures, creating ample space around each. The Roman figures, by contrast, seem to crowd up against one another, and even stand in two rows, so there is no space for easy movement, yet the flow seems more natural and real. The heads come close to being portraits, although they are somewhat more generalized than the patrician portrait busts. The sculptors have created a visual document which supports the State and the family, the presence of children add an intimacy which creates a sense of reality for the Ara Pacis and its meaning for the Empire.
The frieze has a Hellenistic, classical style.
The procession is a depiction of a real event – probably it represents the ceremony for the inauguration of the construction of the altar in 13 BCE.
The people depicted are portraits of individuals who participated in the event.
There is a great concern for, and successful depiction of spatial depth.

8. Ara Pacis – SmART History video
Procession of the Imperial Family
Ara Pacis, Rome, Italy
ca BCE.
compare to:
Panathenic Festival Procession,
Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens,
Greece, ca BCE.
Ara Pacis – SmART History video
A comparison of the depiction of the members of the imperial family from the Ara Pacis with the figures from the Parthenon frieze shows the drapery of the Greek figures falls gently and quietly in the folds that stress repeated calm verticals. While the draperies of the Roman figures are much more active, swinging this way on one figure, that way on another. In the Greek piece, the carving seems dry and the folds shallow. The flat neutral background is allowed to appear between the Greek figures, creating ample space around each. The Roman figures, by contrast, seem to crowd up against one another, and even stand in two rows, so there is no space for easy movement, yet the flow seems more natural and real. The heads come close to being portraits, although they are somewhat more generalized than the patrician portrait busts. The sculptors have created a visual document which supports the State and the family, the presence of children add an intimacy which creates a sense of reality for the Ara Pacis and its meaning for the Empire.

9. Maison Carrée “Square House” Nîmes, France, ca. 1–10 CE.
It was much admired by Thomas Jefferson (US president & architect), who used it as the model for the State Capitol in Richmond, Virginia.
Similar to Fortuna Virilis - elevated entrance, pseudoperipteral columns
Maison Caree is larger though, and has 6 columns in front, instead of 4.

10. Pont du Gard The great aqueduct-bridge at Nîmes, France:
A three-story aqueduct-bridge known today as the Pont-du-Gard demonstrates the skill of Rome's engineers.
It provided 100 gallons of water a day to the city dwellers from 30 miles away.
Each arch spans 82’ & is constructed of blocks weighing 2 tons each.
The upper portion carried the water itself.
Roman engineers built superb aqueduct-bridges, like the famous Pont du Gard in southern France. It is 880 feet long and over 160 feet high. The lower level supported the roadbed, while the upper level served as an aqueduct. With this structure, the Romans not only achieved the practical purpose of servicing the population with a water source, but also provided a vehicular and pedestrian traffic corridor over the river Gard. This was achieved by using forms of great esthetic power, as can be seen by the rhythm of the arches, and by utilizing the tensile strength of concrete to create a practical and efficient structure.

11. Porta Maggiore
(A Roman City Gate) Constructed at a point where two of Rome's water lines and two major roads converged, the Porta Maggiore is an outstanding example of the Roman rusticated masonry style.
The attic (upper portion) concealed the aqueducts one above the other.

12. The Flavians (69–96 CE):
The suicide of Nero in 68 CE. brought an end to the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Following a period of civil strife, Vespasian emerged as the new emperor.
Vespasian, whose family name was Flavius, was succeeded by his son Titus.
After Titus's death in 81 CE., Vespasian's second son, Domitian, became emperor.
The huge amphitheater in Rome known as the Colosseum was begun by Vespasian and completed by Titus in 80 CE.

13. The ROmans used repeated arch patterns with great effectiveness in other constructions as well, for example, in the Colosseum. This building was the largest arena in existence until very recent times, measuring 600 feet in length and 400 feet in width. It seated nearly fifty thousand people. The engineering feats are again impressive, the banked seats had to be supported by the structure itself, not by and underlying hill, as had been the case with Greek ampitheaters.
The visual propaganda which Roman buildings created effectively persuaded the populations of the might of the Empire. The building programs the Romans sponsored became efficient in servicing the Empire but also in allowing those perimeter areas definitive examples of the sheer power of the Empire.
The Colosseum

14. A Triumph of Roman Engineering:
The Colosseum was built using concrete.
The Colosseum still represents Rome more than any other building
The exterior, made of travertine, is divided into four bands.
The large arched openings that pierce the lower three are framed by engaged columns with Tuscan Doric capitals at the bottom, then Ionic capitals, and Corinthian capitals on the third level.

15. The Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater) The oval seating area is supported by a complex system of concrete barrel vaults.

16. Portrait Bust of a Flavian Woman Rome, Italy, ca. 90 CE. Marble, approx. 2' 1" high
This bust is notable for its elegance and delicacy and for the virtuoso ways the sculptor rendered the differing textures of hair and flesh.

17. Arch of Titus Rome, Italy, after 81 CE.
Arch of Titus – SmART History video
Arch of Titus Rome, Italy, after 81 CE.
Erected by Dominitian in honor of his brother Titus.
It is typical of earlier triumphal arches and consists of only one passageway.
It is framed by engaged columns with composite capitals.
The spandrels* contain reliefs of winged female Victory figures.
The Empire how did it really make that impact that was imitated by subsequent generations? In addition to the monuments of Augustus perhaps the most characteristic example of Roman Imperial art is the triumphal arch, like the one erected in Rome by the Emperer Domitian in the year 81 CE to commemorate his brother Titus, the short-lived emperor who proceeded him. The arch contained a single passageway that was decorated on either side by carved relief panels.
*Spandrel: The ‘triangular’ space between the outer curve of an arch and the rectangle it is framed by.

18. Triumph of Titus Divine Gods interact with the Human emperor.
One side illustrates the triumphal parade of Titus himself down the Via Sacra upon his return from the Jewish Wars in 70 CE. He stands in a quadrigae (a chariot drawn by four horses).
Arch of Titus, relief panel ca. 81 CE. Marble, approx. 7' 10" high.
Divine Gods interact with the Human emperor.

19. Spoils of Jerusalem
The other side shows the spoils from the Temple of Jerusalem that was carried in the triumphal procession. Most distinctive is the seven-branched candlestick, the menorah, clearly seen as a part of the booty. both reliefs are crowded with figures, and the heads show great originality and individuality. Their style is typically Roman. A great deal of action is compacted in a small space, as characteristic that is much more typical of Roman relief than of Greek Classical relief. Whereas Greek reliefs were often symbolic, the Romans were much more interested in the narrative, praising their victories and military exploits as well as their contributions to the Empire.
Two large, deeply carved relief panels on the inside of the passageway show the triumphal parade of Titus down the Sacred Way after his return from the conquest of Judea at the end of the Jewish Wars in 70 CE.

20. The other side shows the spoils from the Temple of Jerusalem that was carried in the triumphal procession. Most distinctive is the seven-branched candlestick, the menorah, clearly seen as a part of the booty. both reliefs are crowded with figures, and the heads show great originality and individuality. Their style is typically Roman. A great deal of action is compacted in a small space, as characteristic that is much more typical of Roman relief than of Greek Classical relief. Whereas Greek reliefs were often symbolic, the Romans were much more interested in the narrative, praising their victories and military exploits as well as their contributions to the Empire.
Spoils of Jerusalem
The principle of movement is successfully employed.
The diagonal angles of figures pressing forward, the obliquely placed arch, and the high relief, all contribute to the sense of movement. Only the Menorah is static.

21. High Empire (96 – 192 CE.)
The Roman Empire at Its Peak: Under Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines in the second century CE, the Roman Empire reached its greatest geographic extent and the height of its power.
Trajan (98–117 CE.)
The Spanish Emperor: Under Trajan, the first non-Italian to become emperor, Rome expanded its rule even further abroad.
Trajan instituted a number of social programs to secure the welfare of the Roman people.

22. Plan of Timgad (Thamugadi), Algeria, founded 100 CE.
©2003 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
Plan of Timgad (Thamugadi), Algeria, founded 100 CE.
A New Colony in Africa:
A new colony for army veterans, founded by Trajan in 100 CE. follows a plan that resembles a Roman military encampment.
All new cities & colonial settlements were laid out in the same manner

23. 45. The Forum of Trajan. Rome, Italy. Apollodorus of Damascus
45. The Forum of Trajan. Rome, Italy. Apollodorus of Damascus. Forum and Markets: 106 – 112 CE; column completed 113 CE. Brick and concrete (architecture); marble (column)
Rome's Greatest Forum: includes a triumphal arch, a colonnaded open square, a basilica, a temple, two libraries, and a giant commemorative column with a tomb at its base.
Architecht: Apollodorus of Damascus, dedicated in 112 CE.
The Emperor Trajan erected a number of monuments to commemorate and detail his victories and achievements. The most famous is the 100-foot column he erected in his new forum in Rome.

24. Column of Trajan Architect: Apollodorus of Damascus
Restored in the 1990’s, the column is one hundred twenty-eight feet high.
Coins indicate that it was once crowned by a heroically nude statue of the emperor. But now a statue of St. Peter sits atop it.
The square base is the emperor’s mausoleum. Inside it, golden urns contain his & his wife’s ashes.
The narrative winds up the column. The repetition of the major characters of Trajan’s Dacian campaigns may have been derived from the picture scrolls that were popular during this time.
Column of Trajan

25. Free standing columns were used as monuments since Hellenic times
Column was originally topped with a statue that was destroyed in the Middle Ages
The scenes rarely show actual combat. There is more attention paid to geography and politics.
The column of Trajan is similar to Near East reliefs, though it is unclear if there is a link between them.
Column of Trajan – SmART History video
Column of Trajan, Rome, CE.

26. Column of Trajan
An epic narrative: The colossal freestanding column is decorated with a continuous, spiraling, narrative frieze.
The frieze depicts Trajan's two successful campaigns against the Dacians (ancient Romanians).
The spiraling frieze is 625’ long. It has been likened to an illustrated scroll. It shows 150 episodes containing 2500 figures.
It is sculpted in low relief at the bottom, so as not to disturb the shape of the column originally enhanced by paint.
The frieze band increases in height as it moves upwards to help in the viewing of the story. The depth of the relief also increases with the height.
Many details from the column demonstrate what we call “stacked perspective,” in which the figures in the back are placed higher than those in front. This shorthand perspective often sacrifices truth to appearance or illusion in order to gain understanding. The artist had a sharp eye for realistic detail, which is so important in giving vitality to the narrative. But often symbolic representations are given in the midst of realistic description. The emphasis is more on narrative fact than on visual attractiveness. This was the function and purpose of the monument, to give a visual account of the victories of not only the emperor but also the armies of Rome.

27. Portrait has emotional intensity, a combination of Greek pathos and Roman nobility – strong brow, commanding gaze.
Trajan conformed to the Roman tradition of being clean-shaven. After Trajan, emperors wore beards to depict Hellenic tradition.
Trajan, 100 CE.

28. Markets of Trajan
Built as a multilevel complex on the slope of the Quirinal hill to house both shops and administrative offices. The basic unit was the taberna, a single-room shop covered by a barrel vault. Architect: Apollodorus of Damascus

29. Trajan’s Markets
This is an example of the indoor market hall that would house the tabernas.
the hall housed two floors of shops, with the upper shops set back on each side and lit by skylights.
Light also entered the ground floor shops via the groin vaults above

30. Arch of Trajan The Triumphal Arch as Billboard:
Relief panels illustrating Trajan's achievements cover both façades.
Every inch was used to advertise the emperor’s achievements as “all things to all people”
Benevento, Italy, ca. 114–118 CE.

31. Hadrian (117–138 CE.) Portrait bust of Hadrian as
This idealized portrait of Hadrian was modeled on statues of mature Greek men (his facial hair tells us that).
Hadrian admired Greek culture and in Grecian fashion, he wore a beard.
Hadrian started a fad! For more than a century after, all other Roman emperors wore beards.
Hadrian had more portraits made than any other emperor except Augustus.
The Column of Trajan was originally the focal point of the great forum, or civic cetner, that Trajan built in Rome. The complex was much larger in scope than any of the for a constructed by previous emerors. IN addition to a huge basilica, it contained libraries and a temple, with market stalls around the sides of a great adjacent courtyard. This tradition of constantly adding to the dynamics of Rome’s building program was continued by the Emperor Hadrian, who added to his personal glory as well as to the glory of Rome by erecting great public buildings like the Pantheon, which was built during his rule.
Portrait bust of Hadrian as
General, Tel Shalem, Israel,
ca.130–138 CE.
Bronze, approx. 2' 11" high

32. Hadrian’s Pantheon 118-125 CE
The Romans were much more concerned with interior space than the
Greeks had been, and through the use of the arch and the dome they learned to manipulate space in very creative ways. Roman architect-engineers sought practical solutions to problems, and explored interior spaces of many types, making excellent use of such an unprepossessing material as poured concrete. The combination of the strength of the material and the flexibility it allowed, along with the curves of the arch, made it possible for the architects to vault much greater spaces than ever before. The possibilities were explored in such structures as the Pantheon, the Baths of Caracalla, and the Basilica of Constantine. Marble facing was commonly used on the great civic buildings that changed the face of Rome, but underneath, most of them were constructed of concrete.
Hadrian’s Pantheon CE
“The temple of all gods,” the pantheon is one of the best preserved buildings of antiquity.

33. One of the most influential designs in architectural history.
©2003 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
Longitudinal and lateral sections of Pantheon Rome, Italy CE.
One of the most influential designs in architectural history.
Only the columned entryway is a tribute to antiquity (Greece and Etruria) all other aspects were revolutionary.
The top of the dome is 142’ from the floor & diameter of dome is also 142’
The Roman concern with interior space is apparent in the interior of the Pantheon one of the most influential buildings in the history of art. Both the inner diameter and the height of the great dome measure 142 feet. It was constructed of concrete, and the tremendous weight of the dome was somewhat lightened by the deep coffering.

34. The dome’s circular opening – the occulus – is thirty feet in diameter and is the only light source for the interior.
Coffers also lightened the load of the dome’s ceiling, as did the concrete.
Each coffer had a gilded bronze rosette in the center imitating the stars of the heavens.
Roman architects were the 1st to conceive architecture as units of space that could be shaped by enclosures.
Coffers are the ornamental panels that are sunk into the dome. Light enters the building only through the great oculus (Circular eye) in the center of the dome, which measures 30 feet in diameter. Deep recesses have been cut into the walls, which are 20 feet thick. The circular building was entered through a porch whose monolithic Corinthian columns supported an architrave and pediment. The vast interior space provided the Roman with a completely different type of architectural experience. An enclosure of vast interior space that does not imprison one, this type of space became the hallmark of the Roman architect. This enclosure allowed the Romans to create huge buildings using a seemingly simple plan with the arch and concrete.
Pantheon CE

35. Hadrian's villa ca. 130–138 CE. Hadrian was the architect.
Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli – SmART History video
Hadrian's villa
ca. 130–138 CE. Hadrian was the architect.
A Well-Traveled Emperor's Retreat: at Tivoli, it includes a pool and an artificial grotto, called the Canopus (oval pool) and Serapeum (artificial grotto).
Commemorated the emperor's trip to Egypt.
The Canopus, however, is lined with marble copies of Greek statues and its most unique features are the arcuated lintels atop the Corinthian colonnade.

36. Hadrian's villa – the artificial Grotto ca. 130–138 CE