1. End Marks, Abbreviations, and Commas
Chapter 11: Punctuation
End Marks, Abbreviations, and Commas

2. End Marks Used to indicate the purpose of the sentence
A statement, or declarative sentence, is followed by a period.
A question, or interrogative sentence, is followed by a question mark.
An exclamation, or exclamatory sentence, is followed by an exclamation point.
A command or request, also known as a imperative sentence, is followed by either a period or an exclamation point.

3. Abbreviations A shortened form of a word or a word group.
Periods are used with some abbreviations, but not all.
Pay close attention to when to use them and when not to

4. Abbreviations- Personal Names
Abbreviated names only if the person is commonly known by the abbreviated name
Example: Ida B. Wells
T. H. White
M.F.K. Fisher

5. Abbreviations- Titles
Abbreviate social titles when used before the full name or before the first name alone
Examples: Mr. Tom Evans Mrs. Dupont
Abbreviate civil and military titles used before full names OR before initials and last names
Spell title out if used before last names alone
Examples: Sen. Kay Hutchinson Senator Hutchinson
Abbreviate titles and academic degrees that follow proper names
Examples: Ira Knox, Jr. Peter Garcia, M.D.

6. Abbreviations- Agencies and Organizations
Acronyms are formed from the first letter (or first few letters) of a series of words.
Written without periods
Spell out the first use of the name, then abbreviate the names by their commonly known acronyms.
Example: My sister works for the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). She is compiling data for one of the NIMH’s behavior studies.

7. Abbreviations- Geographical Terms
Spell out names of states and other political units
Abbreviate names in tables, notes, or bibliographies (works cited)
In text, spell out every word in an address, but you can abbreviate on an envelope, tables, and notes
Two-letter state abbreviations without periods are used only when the zip code is given.

8. Abbreviations- Time Abbreviate era designations, such as A.D. and B.C.
A.D.= anno Domini “in the year of the Lord”
precedes the specific year number
follows the name of a century
Examples: A.D sixth century A.D.
B.C.= “before Christ”
follows the specific year number
Examples: 700 B.C. twelfth century B.C.

9. Abbreviations- Time, continued
Spell out the names of months and days
Abbreviate them in tables, notes, and works cited
Abbreviate A.M. and P.M.
The abbreviation follows the numerals indicating the time

10. Abbreviations- Units of Measurement
Units of measurement abbreviations are usually written without periods
EXCEPT when using inch= in.
Used so it is not confused with the word “in”
In text, spell out the names of the units of measurement
These can be abbreviated in tables and notes when they follow a number

11. Commas- Items in a Series
Use commas to separate items in a series
Example: All my cousins, aunts, and uncles came to the party on Saturday.
If items are joined by words like and, or, or nor, do not use commas to separate them
Example: I need tacks and nails and a hammer.

12. Commas- Items in a Series
Short independent clauses may be separated by commas
Example: The engine roared, the wheels spun, and a cloud of dust swirled behind the sports car.
Use commas to separate two or more adjectives preceding a noun.
Example: I study in our small dining room.

13. Commas- Independent Clauses
Use a comma between the following words that join independent clauses.
and or
but so
for yet
nor
Example: He is an accomplished actor, yet he is very modest.

14. Commas- Nonessential Clauses and Phrases
Use commas to offset nonessential subordinate clauses and nonessential participle phrases.
Nonessential clause or participle phrase adds information that is not necessary to the main idea of the sentence
Example: Eileen Murry, who is at the top of her class, want to go to medical school.
Example: Eileen Murry wants to go to medical school.

15. Commas- Introductory Elements
Use commas after introductory elements
Use a comma to set off a mild exclamation at the beginning of a sentence. Also, set off other introductory words with a comma as well.
Example: Why, you’re Andy’s brother, aren’t you?
Example: Yes, she is going to the cafeteria.
Use a comma after an introductory participle phrase
Example: Switching on the flashlight, the ranger led the way down the path to the caves.

16. Commas- Introductory Elements, continued
Use a comma after two or more introductory prepositional phrases or after a long one
Example: Near the door to the garage, you will find hooks for the car keys.
You do not need to use a comma after one short prepositional phrase
Example: At our house we share all the work.
Use a comma after an introductory adverb clause
Example: If you see smoke, you know there is a fire.

17. Commas- Interrupters
Use commas to set off elements that interrupt the sentence.
Example: His guitar, according to him, once belonged to Bo Diddley.
Example: Elizabeth Pena, my favorite actress, stars in the movie I rented.
Example: I did that exercise last night, Ms. Ryan.
Example: Of course, I am glad that he called me about the extra movie tickets.

18. Commas- Conventional Uses of Commas
Use commas to separate items in dates and addresses.
Example: After Tuesday, November 24, 2009, address all orders to Emeryville, CA
Use a comma after the salutation of a personal letter and after the closing of any letter.
Example: Dear Mr. Anne,
Use commas to set off abbreviations when they follow a persons name.
Example: Please welcome Allen Davis, Jr. to the class.

19. Commas- Unnecessary Commas
Make sure that every comma you are using has a specific job.
Do not use a sentence that is clear without it or that does not need it.