1. ACE Personal Trainer Manual 5th Edition
Chapter 11: Cardiorespiratory Training: Programming and Progressions
Lesson 11.1

2. PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS TO CARDIORESPIRATORY EXERCISE
Humans are meant to move – physical movement is essential for human survival:
The organ systems involved in energy metabolism function best when subjected to regular physical challenges.
Physical activity leads to improvements in work capacity, the sense of well-being, and overall health, as well as to fewer diseases.
Adaptations to cardiorespiratory exercise occur in the:
Muscular system
Cardiovascular system
Respiratory system

3. MUSCULAR SYSTEM ADAPTATIONS
During low-intensity endurance exercise, adaptations occur in the ____________muscle fibers:
Increase in size and number of mitochondria to augment aerobic adenosine triphosphate (ATP) generation
A growth of more capillaries around the recruited muscle fibers, enhancing the delivery of oxygenated blood
Potential hypertrophy – adaptations in the contractile mechanism (i.e., actin and myosin filaments)
During higher-intensity exercise, ___________muscle fibers may be recruited and adapt:
Increase in the number of anaerobic enzymes so that anaerobic energy production is enhanced
Potential hypertrophy of contractile proteins with increased training intensity
The muscle fibers that are recruited to perform exercise are the only ones stimulated to adapt.

4. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM ADAPTATIONS
Stroke volume – the amount of blood pumped per beat
During endurance training, and with the expansion of blood volume, the heart muscle:
Will hypertrophy
Will enlarge its chambers and becoming a bigger and stronger muscle
Is able to deliver a higher cardiac output to the muscles
This increase in stroke volume is due to:
Chamber enlargement
Greater amounts of chamber filling (end-diastolic volume)
Greater chamber emptying (ejection fraction) of the heart with each beat
A number of studies suggest that the maximum heart rate (MHR) does not increase with training.
There is also some evidence that the redistribution of the cardiac output to the active muscles (via vasodilation) may improve after training, thus making the increase in cardiac output more effective in terms of delivering oxygen where it is needed.

5. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ADAPTATIONS
With regular exercise, the respiration muscles adapt:
Allow for increased ventilation of the alveoli
Improvement in strength and fatigue resistance
Increased ventilation for longer periods
Increase in tidal volume
Reduces the relative amount of respiratory dead space at high breathing frequencies
The respiration muscles span the thorax, and abdomen:
Diaphragm – the body’s key breathing muscle, and the external intercostals used during passive (resting) inspiration
The group of muscles that pull the rib cage upward (i.e., sternocleidomastoid, scalene, and portions of the serratus anterior) during active (exercise) inspiration
The group of muscles that pull the rib cage downward (i.e., rectus abdominis and quadratus lumborum) during active expiration
Respiratory dead space (i.e., air trapped in the bronchial tubes that never reaches the alveoli)
There is little evidence that the structures of the pulmonary system actually increase in size.

6. TIME REQUIRED FOR INCREASES IN AEROBIC CAPACITY
Adaptations to exercise begin with the first exercise bout.
VO2max:
Increases with training
Reaches a peak and plateaus within about six months
Ventilatory threshold:
Increased capillary growth
Increased mitochondrial density (size and number)
Changes may continue for years
To support these cardiorespiratory adaptations:
Increased capacity of the muscle to store additional glycogen
Enhanced ability to mobilize and use fatty acids as a fuel source
VO2max – the traditional standard marker of the aerobic-training effect
Ventilatory threshold (VT) – a significant marker of metabolism that permits prediction of lactate threshold (LT) from the minute ventilation (VE) response during progressive exercise

7. IMPROVED EXERCISE CAPACITY

8. IMPROVED EXERCISE CAPACITY

9. PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS TO STEADY-STATE EXERCISE
_________________– the intensity of exercise where the energy and physiological demands of the exercise bout are met by the delivery of the physiological systems in the body
Steady-state is achieved when the following levels are stable after a short period:
Rate of oxygen uptake (VO2)
Heart rate (HR)
Cardiac output
Ventilation
Blood lactate concentration
Body temperature
Steady-state exercise duration is primarily limited by:
The willingness to continue
The availability of oxygen, muscle glycogen, and/or blood glucose
When an exercise bout begins or exercise intensity changes, the body takes between 45 seconds and three to four minutes to achieve steady state.
The time needed to achieve this level, sometime referred to as a “second wind,” varies according to several factors, including fitness level (more fit individuals achieve steady state faster) and exercise intensity (when working at higher intensities, people require longer periods to achieve steady state).
The primary adaptations to exercise typically occur during steady-state exercise at moderate intensity.

10. PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS TO INTERVAL TRAINING
Interval training – a few repetitions of higher-intensity exercise followed by recovery periods
Anaerobic adaptations include improved tolerance for the buildup of lactate
Enhances the ability to sustain higher intensities of exercise for longer periods
During higher intensities – the overload on the heart to deliver blood to exercising muscles causes stroke volume to increase more so than with lower-intensity steady-state training.
Studies suggest that interval training promotes similar or greater improvements in VO2max and fitness than steady-state exercise.
While this may prove to be a more time-efficient method of training, the appropriateness of this training modality must always be considered for deconditioned clients.
A universal principle to training is that it is necessary to progressively perform higher intensities of exercise to effectively challenge or overload the cardiorespiratory system.
Since muscle fibers that are not recruited are not likely to adapt, it is probable that there is little or no adaptation of type II muscle fibers during moderate-intensity aerobic training, whereas there would be with higher-intensity training. Generally, these intensities are not sustained through steady-state exercise.
During higher intensities, the overload on the heart to deliver blood to exercising muscles causes stroke volume to increase more so than with lower-intensity steady-state training. This is probably attributable to large increases in venous blood return that occur with very high-intensity exercise that increases end-diastolic volume (i.e., chamber filling).

11. COMPONENTS OF A CARDIORESPIRATORY WORKOUT
There are basically three components of any training session:
Warm-up phase
Conditioning phase
Cool-down phase
Exercise programming may differ:
A gradual increase from the warm-up, stabilized for conditioning, and then decreased for the cool-down
Distinct transitions from the warm-up, to conditioning, to cool-down

12. WARM-UP PHASE
Warm-up – a period of lighter exercise preceding the conditioning phase:
Should last for 5–10 minutes for most healthy adults
Should begin with low- to moderate-intensity exercise or activity that gradually increases in intensity
The harder the conditioning phase and/or the older the exerciser, the more extensive the warm-up should be:
If higher-intensity intervals are planned, include higher-intensity exercise in the latter portion of the warm-up to prepare.
The warm-up should not be so demanding that it creates fatigue that would reduce performance.

13. Elements of the conditioning phase should be based on:
Frequency
Duration
Intensity (steady-state or interval-training)
Modality
The client’s current fitness and training goals
Consider programming higher-intensity elements fairly early in the conditioning phase.
Conclude the conditioning phase with more steady-state exercise.
Aerobic-interval training:
Typically involves bouts of steady-state exercise performed at higher intensities for sustained periods (typically a minimum of three minutes), followed by a return to lower aerobic intensities for the recovery interval.
These intervals often utilize exercise-to-recovery ratios between 1:2 and 1:1 (e.g., a four-minute steady-state bout is followed by an eight-minute recovery period at a lower intensity when following a 1:2 exercise-to-recovery ratio).
It should also be noted that higher-intensity intervals of 15 to 30 seconds may effectively recruit (and thus stimulate) type II muscle fibers, and are essentially aerobic from the standpoint of the overall metabolic response to training.
Assuming that aerobically trained type II muscle fibers may serve as “lactate sinks” (structures that are proficient at using lactate for energy) during hard steady-state exercise, the aerobic-training stimulus should include at least some higher-intensity segments in programs for clients with goals that go beyond basic cardiorespiratory conditioning.

14. COOL-DOWN PHASE The cool-down:
Should be of approximately the same duration and intensity as the warm-up
5–10 minutes of low- to moderate-intensity activity
Prevents the tendency for blood to pool in the extremities, which may occur when exercise ends
An active cool-down helps remove metabolic waste from the muscles to be metabolized by other tissues.
Stretching after the cool-down period can improve flexibility.
The cessation of significant venous return from the “muscle pump” experienced during exercise can cause blood to accumulate in the lower extremity, reducing blood flow back to the heart and out to vital organs (e.g., the brain, potentially causing symptoms of lightheadedness).

15. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR CARDIORESPIRATORY EXERCISE
Specific guidelines for adults 18–64 years:
Perform ___________minutes per week of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity, or 75 minutes per week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or a combination of both
Additional health benefits are obtained from performing greater amounts of activity than those quantities
Perform aerobic bouts that last at least 10 minutes, preferably spread throughout the week
Participate in muscle-strengthening activities involving all major muscle groups at least two days per week
Specific guidelines for ages 6–17:
Perform at least 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity every day
Include vigorous-intensity activity a minimum of three days per week
Participate in muscle-strengthening and bone-strengthening activity a minimum of three days per week
From the 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans released by the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services

16. F.I.T.T. F – _____________ I – ______________ T – ______________
Trainers generally progress their clients’ programs by manipulating these variables
Each client’s health status, exercise tolerance, available time, and goals all affect the rate of program progression
Consider adding an “E” – F.I.T.T.E.
E – Enjoyable or experience:
Clients should always enjoy the exercise experience
Enjoyment influences the thoughts and emotions that can ultimately dictate participation and adherence rates
Improvement in cardiorespiratory fitness occurs most quickly from progressive increases in exercise intensity, and fades when training intensity is reduced.
Changes in fitness are more sensitive to changes in intensity than to changes in the frequency or duration of training.

17. CARDIORESPIRATORY RECOMMENDATIONS

18. INTENSITY
Exercise intensity – the most important element of the exercise program to monitor
Methods for monitoring exercise intensity:
Heart rate [% maximum heart rate (MHR); % heart-rate reserve (HRR)]
Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE)
VO2 or metabolic equivalents (METs)
Caloric expenditure
Talk test/first ventilatory threshold (VT1)
Blood lactate and second ventilatory threshold (VT2)
Exercise intensity is also the most difficult element to present quantitatively.

19. INTENSITY: HEART RATE
Using percentage of MHR or HRR is the most widely used approach for programming and monitoring intensity:
Accuracy requires knowledge of the individual’s MHR
Given the risk of a maximal-effort test, MHR is normally determined via mathematical formulas (e.g., 220 – age)
Numerous variables impact MHR:
Genetics
Exercise modality (e.g., MHR varies between running and cycling)
Medications
Body size – MHR higher in smaller clients due to smaller heart and stroke volume
Altitude – lowers MHR reached due to a client’s inability to train at higher intensities
Age – MHR varies significantly among people of the same age
Smaller heart and chamber size – generally explains why females often have higher resting heart rates (RHR) than males.

20. INTENSITY: HEART RATE Concerns with 220 – age formula:
Tends to overestimate MHR in younger adults
Underestimates MHR in older adults
This may lead to over- or underestimating exercise intensities:
Overtraining – risk of injury and a potentially negative experience
Undertraining – potential boredom and insufficient challenge
Risk of cardiovascular complications – strongly related to inappropriately high exercise intensities
Guiding exercise on the basis of estimated age-based MHR is discouraged
ACSM suggests formulas with standard deviations closer to 7 bpm:
206.9 – (0.67 x age)
208 – (0.7 x age)

21. INTENSITY: HEART RATE

22. RECOMMENDED EXERCISE INTENSITY

23. KARVONEN METHOD
The Karvonen formula – or heart-rate reserve (HRR) – should be based on measured MHR measured to yield the most accurate results.
HRR considers potential RHR differences by determining a HRR from which training intensities are calculated.
This reduces discrepancies in training intensities between individuals with different RHR and accommodates the training adaptation that lowers RHR, therefore expanding HRR.
While the HRR model does reduce the error in estimation, it still has limitations regarding its accuracy and appropriateness. There is some debate over the body position in which RHR is measured. This formula was created measuring true RHR, taken in the morning in a reclining position. RHR varies by approximately five to 10 beats when a person transitions from lying to standing, thereby altering the size of the HRR. Given the concern with some inconsistencies with clients measuring their own HR, ACE recommends measuring RHR in the body position in which the client will exercise. This may necessitate the need for two sets of training zones, one for seated/recumbent positions and another for standing activities.

24. KARVONEN METHOD

25. USE OF KARVONEN METHOD
Figure 11-3 Use of the Karvonen formula for a 20-year-old man (average shape; resting heart rate = 70 bpm)
Note: bpm = Beats per minute; MHR = Maximum heart rate; HRR = Heart-rate reserve; RHR = Resting heart rate

26. RATINGS OF PERCEIVED EXERTION
RPE – a subjective numbering system shown to be capable of defining the ranges of objective exercise intensity
There are two versions of the RPE scale:
The classical (6 to 20) scale
The contemporary category ratio (0 to 10) scale
RPE ratings of moderate to hard span the range of recommended exercise training intensities.
The RPE system works well for approximately 90% of people.
With practice, clients can usually learn to use the scale fairly effectively.
A rating of “moderate” on the RPE scale is more or less equivalent to 70% of HRR.
A rating of “somewhat hard” is more or less equivalent to 80% of HRR.
A rating of “hard” is more or less equivalent to 85% of HRR.
Very sedentary individuals often find the RPE scale difficult to use, as they find any level of exercise fairly hard.
However, in the very sedentary, even a small amount of low-intensity exercise is effective in terms of producing some exercise training benefits and improved health outcomes.
At the other end of the continuum, individuals who have high levels of muscular strength may under-rate the intensity of exercise if they focus on the muscular tension requirement of exercise rather than on the breathing elements.

27. INTENSITY: CALORIC EXPENDITURE
When the human body burns fuel, oxygen (O2) is consumed, which yields calories to perform work.
The number of calories produced per liter of O2 consumed varies according to the fuel utilized:
4.69 kcal per liter of O2 for fats
5.05 kcal per liter of O2 for glucose
A value of 5 kcal per liter of O2 is sufficiently accurate
Caloric expenditure – calculated in terms of the gross or absolute VO2 during an activity:
The measured or estimated total quantity of O2 consumed per minute x 5 kcal/liter O2
A relative VO2 of 40 mL/kg/min for a 220-lb (100-kg) individual is converted to gross or absolute terms as follows:
If this individual consumes 40 mL/kg/min, then his or her entire body consumes 40 mL x 100 kg = 4,000 mL/min, or 4.0 L/min (1,000 mL = 1 L)
Most pieces of commercial cardiovascular exercise equipment provide estimates of caloric expenditure in this same manner. While they may not always be 100% accurate, they calculate caloric expenditure by estimating gross or absolute VO2 based on the amount of work being performed (i.e., speed, grade, and watts).
If direct measurement of VO2 during activity is not available, the trainer can use published MET estimates for a variety of activities (see Table 11-6). Online caloric-expenditure calculators are available for a variety of physical activities on the ACE website (
If the quantity of O2 consumed is provided or measured in relative terms (i.e., mL/kg/min), this value must first be converted to gross or absolute terms to determine the total amount of O2 consumed before the caloric value can be calculated.

28. Then ask, “Can you speak comfortably?”
INTENSITY: TALK TEST
At about the intensity of VT1, the increase in ventilation is accomplished by an increase in breathing frequency – it is no longer possible to speak comfortably.
Ask clients to recite something familiar, such as the Pledge of Allegiance.
Then ask, “Can you speak comfortably?”
If yes, the intensity is below the VT1.
If less than an unequivocal “yes,” the intensity is probably right at VT1.
If “no,” the intensity is probably above or nearer to VT2.
The talk test is based off an individual’s unique metabolic or ventilatory responses.
2nd option:
Compare the number that an individual can count to during the expiration phase of one breath during exercise against the number that can be counted to during the expiration phase at rest.
Normally, when the number that can be counted to during exercise drops to about 70% of the number that is possible at rest, the intensity is approximately equal to the VT1. For example, if an individual can count to 14 during the expiration phase at rest, 70%—the indicator of VT1—represents the exercise intensity at which he or she can no longer count past 10.
For most people, training at intensities at which the answer to the question, “Can you speak comfortably?” becomes less than an unequivocal “yes” may represent the ideal training intensity marker. Therefore, the talk test is an appropriate marker to use for many individuals, especially for those seeking to lose weight or develop their aerobic efficiency. At VT1, fats continue to contribute significantly to the number of calories burned (caloric quality). Additionally, training at or near this intensity (unique to the individual’s own metabolism) increases the likelihood of a better exercise experience. Higher-intensity training for those individuals with performance goals can be regulated in terms of the VT2.

29. BLOOD LACTATE AND VT2
Lactate – produced at a higher rate as exercise intensity increases
At approximately 50% power output during incremental exercise, the ability to remove lactate becomes limited, and a net accumulation of lactate in the blood begins
Lactate threshold – the point when lactate production becomes greater than lactate removal, resulting in an initial rise in blood lactate values
VT1 and the increase in blood lactate occur at about the same intensity
VT2 – the point at which high-intensity exercise can no longer be sustained given the accumulation of lactate that begins to overwhelm the blood’s buffering system
Defined as the onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) and represents the “shutdown” point; the HR turnpoint (HRTP)
Exercise immediately below this OBLA marker represents the highest sustainable intensity.
Considered an excellent marker of performance – usually lasting 20–30 minutes in duration
Because of the need to prevent the accumulation of lactate from causing disturbances in the blood pH balance of the body, the acid associated with lactate is buffered by the bicarbonate buffering system in the blood. This produces extra carbon dioxide (CO2), which causes a subsequent increase in the amount of breathing (VT1) and the subsequent challenge to talking continuously. At higher intensities, when the buffering mechanism cannot keep up with the extra acid production, and the pH of the blood begins to fall (due to accumulating lactate), the respiratory center is strongly stimulated, and there is yet another increase in breathing (VT2). This is usually associated with a blood lactate concentration of about 4 mmol/L – equivalent to the OBLA. This point represents the intensity at which the body can no longer sustain an activity, given the accumulation of lactate, and begins to shut down. In most healthy people, this marker is associated with a flattening of the HR response to increasing intensity, referred to as the HR turnpoint (HRTP).
OBLA technically refers to the point at which lactate levels begin to rise exponentially due to an accumulation within the blood and an inability to buffer the influx of acid.
What researchers define as the OBLA is commonly referred to as the anaerobic or lactate threshold by athletes and fitness professionals. This intensity represents the “shutdown” point—what many fitness professionals call the LT. The LT technically refers to the point at which lactate production becomes greater than lactate removal, resulting in an initial rise in blood lactate values.

30. VENTILATORY RESPONSE TO INCREASING INTENSITY

31. THRESHOLD DETECTION
Schematic of the detection of the first and second thresholds based on increases in ventilation (VT1 and VT2), on lactate (LT and 4 mmol/L), and on the non-linearity of the HR increase
This provides for the possibility of three effective training zones based on two thresholds.

32. THREE-ZONE TRAINING MODEL
VT1 and VT2 provide an easy way to divide intensity into training zones that are determined without any use of MHR:
Zone 1 reflects heart rates below VT1
A client can talk comfortably
Zone 2 reflects heart rates from VT1 to just below VT2
The client is not sure if he or she can talk comfortably
Zone 3 reflects heart rates at or above VT2
The client definitely cannot talk comfortably
VT1 and VT2 can be based on respiratory responses or blood lactate responses.

33. DURATION
Exercise duration – the amount of time spent performing the physical activity
Can also be expressed as exercise quantity
Benefits gained from exercise and physical activity are dose-related:
Greater benefits are derived from greater quantities of activity
Activity expending ≤1,000 kcal/week generally produces improvements to health
Greater quantities expending ≥2,000 kcal/ week promote effective weight loss and significant improvements to overall fitness

34. CONSIDERATIONS FOR DURATION
Exercise quantity may be performed:
As one continuous bout, or
Intermittent bouts
Accumulated throughout the day lasting a minimum of 10 minutes each
Trainers must place the needs and abilities of their clients first:
Assess current conditioning levels, tolerance, and availability
Select suitable durations and progressions
Aspire only to attain the recommendations when appropriate

35. EXERCISE DURATION GUIDELINES
Moderate-intensity exercise for at least 30 minutes a session, a minimum of 5 days per week for a total of 150 minutes per week, or
Vigorous-intensity exercise for at least 20–25 minutes a session, a minimum of 3 days per week for a total of 75 minutes per week, or
A combination of both
Those seeking to manage or lose weight:
50–60 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise or activity each day, 5–7 days a week, for a total of 300 minutes, or
A total of 150 minutes of vigorous exercise or activity per week, performed a minimum of three days a week, or
These exercise guidelines are from U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2008.
Trainers must bear in mind that beginner exercisers will generally not be able to complete 30 minutes of moderate-intensity cardiorespiratory exercise, nor will they be capable of achieving the recommended frequency. Exercise can be performed in multiple sessions of 10 or more minutes to accumulate the desired duration and volume of exercise per day. Very deconditioned individuals can benefit from exercise bouts of less than 10 minutes.

36. PRINCIPLES OF EXERCISE PROGRESSION
Overload – when additional timely, appropriate stresses are placed on the organs or systems, physiological adaptations and improvements occur.
The rate of progression depends on:
The individual’s current conditioning level
Program goals
Tolerance for discomfort associated with raising training load or volume
Specificity – physiological adaptations made within the body are specific to demands placed upon that body
Often called the SAID principle – specific adaptations to the imposed demands
A training program should progress to mimic the demands of that activity to provide the specific stimuli that elicit appropriate adaptations.

37. EXERCISE PROGRESSION
Exercise duration – initially the most appropriate variable to manipulate
Start with developing adherence:
Build exercise sessions by 10%, or
5–10 minutes every week or two over the first 4–6 weeks
Increase frequency, then intensity, keeping progressions consistent with the client’s goals
To limit the risk or burnout or orthopedic injury from overuse:
Include multiple modalities
Cross-training, walking, cycling, elliptical training, etc.
Include multiple variations within a modality
Steady-state exercise, interval training, Fartlek training, etc.
While exercise needs to be an enjoyable and positive experience for clients, the trainer will need to determine how to progress each client’s program.
Fartlek running involves varying the pace throughout the run, alternating between fast segments and slow jogs.

38. MODES OR TYPES OF CARDIORESPIRATORY EXERCISE
Any type of activity that involves a large amount of muscle
Can be performed in a rhythmic fashion
Sustained for more than a few minutes
Sustained moderate-intensity exercise (i.e., more than 10–15 minutes) is the key to cardiorespiratory exercise training.
If performed regularly, there are adaptations in the various organ systems (heart, lungs, blood, and muscles) that improve the ability of the person to move around or otherwise perform sustained exercise (i.e., the cardiorespiratory training effect).

39. PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES

40. EQUIPMENT-BASED CARDIOVASCULAR EXERCISE
Treadmills
Cycle ergometers
Elliptical machines
Rowing machines
Arm ergometers
A variety of other devices
Calorie counts on exercise machines are estimates and will never be 100% accurate.
Therefore, it is best to use them as rough benchmarks from workout to workout.
Exercise equipment designed for cardiorespiratory training is a prominent feature in most fitness facilities, as well as in the home exercise market.
Many pieces of higher-end exercise equipment have programs designed to estimate the MET or caloric cost of exercise. If they also have an input feature that allows the exerciser to enter body weight, the caloric cost of exercise may be estimated.
However, the accuracy of estimates for the MET cost of exercising on a particular device is only as good as the research supporting the equation. In many cases, these data are quite good. In other cases, the numbers are much less reliable. Common sense is required when using the MET or caloric values generated by exercise equipment. In many cases, the data are based on university students who are already fairly fit and are exercising without the benefit of handrail support. Thus, in less-fit individuals, and particularly if handrail support is required, the values suggested by the exercise device may overestimate the actual value attained. It is important to understand that the calorie counts on exercise machines (or those obtained from formulas) are simply estimates and will never be 100% accurate. Therefore, it is best to use them as rough benchmarks from workout to workout.

41. GROUP EXERCISE
Common to all group exercise activities is the use of music to drive the tempo of exercise and to make the exercise more enjoyable.
The intensity and type can vary enormously:
Very strenuous – such as group indoor cycling or boot camp
Low intensity – such as for older adults or beginners
Mixed-level – progressions and regressions for all levels
Specific populations – such as pre-natal, those with cancer, or other specialty groups
Personal trainers working with small groups should consider the effect of music on the exercise intensity:
Exercisers will tend to follow the tempo or percussive beat of music
If fast-tempo music is used, the exercise intensity may be higher than intended
Group exercise classes have been one of the hallmarks of the exercise industry.
During the past few decades, an enormous variety of exercise types, with almost every focus imaginable, has emerged.

42. CIRCUIT TRAINING Sequential exercises using different muscle groups
Focusing on one muscle group while a previously used group is recovering
The overall metabolic rate remains high enough to elicit cardiorespiratory training effects, while still focusing on muscular components.
Significant cardiorespiratory training effects came with alternating muscular strength/endurance activities with classical aerobic training in rapid sequence.
Methods:
A single individual rotating through several stations
Groups of people rotating in an organized manner through exercise stations
Because of the specificity principle of exercise, resistance-training programs designed to improve muscular strength and endurance are not intrinsically suited to producing cardiorespiratory training effects.

43. OUTDOOR EXERCISE
A wide variety of outdoor exercises have emerged out of recreational activities, such as:
Running
Canoeing
Climbing
Hiking
Cycling
Activities that require walking or running are very likely to provide cardiorespiratory training.
Other outdoor activities are variable in their cardiorespiratory training effects and depend entirely on how they are performed.

44. Many activities are very seasonal in their application, such as:
SEASONAL EXERCISE
Many activities are very seasonal in their application, such as:
Cross-country skiing
Snowshoeing
Ice skating
Stand-up paddle boarding
Many seasonal activities are likely to have a large cardiorespiratory training effect.
The enjoyment and enthusiasm related to participating in different activities during different seasons suggests the value of seasonal variation.
Although there are clearly highly specific benefits of each type of exercise, the enjoyment and enthusiasm related to performing different types of activities during different seasons, and the underlying commonality of cardiorespiratory fitness, suggests the value of seasonal variation.

45. Reduces orthopedic loading due to buoyancy
WATER-BASED EXERCISE
Reduces orthopedic loading due to buoyancy
Trains different muscle groups than those used during ambulatory activities
Provides effective exercise:
Swimming
Group classes
Water polo, water volleyball, etc.
Energy costs:
Water walking/jogging – strongly related to water depth; increases with speed
Swimming – highly variable; depends on velocity, stroke, skill, and technique
Water-based exercise is particularly valuable for older or obese individuals or those who may have orthopedic issues, as the buoyancy provided by the water unloads the traditional targets of ambulatory exercise.
Immersion in water causes the blood to be redistributed to the central circulation, away from the limbs. In people with compromised circulatory function, this can lead to complications (e.g., breathlessness and heart failure).

46. A variety of other forms
MIND-BODY EXERCISE
Pilates
Yoga
Tai chi
A variety of other forms
Most often performed for reasons other than cardiorespiratory training
May provide intensities comparable to that of walking
The main concepts behind mind-body exercise are that it is performed with focus, with attempts to control and regulate breathing, with a conscious intent to follow a specific form, and as a means of linking the physical and emotional aspects of the person.

47. LIFESTYLE EXERCISE
Humans once got ample amounts of exercise by simply performing daily chores.
Activities can be viewed in the context of the total exercise load, and be considered comparable to walking for exercise:
Working in the yard
Mowing the lawn
Normally, when people think of exercise, they think of an activity that is a “time out” from real life, something that they specifically have to plan to do, which their hunter-gatherer ancestors, or even their grandparents who were farmers, did not have to worry about doing.
The best examples of this are the reports of health variables among the Amish who, because of their religious beliefs, live a life that is much like that of a 19th-century farmer in the U.S. These reports suggest that domestic activities can be more than enough to make people quite fit and contribute to excellent health.

48. ACE IFT MODEL: CARDIORESPIRATORY TRAINING PHASES
Programming is based on the three-zone training model, using HR at VT1 and VT2 to develop individualized programs
Training principles – implement by using various exercise intensity markers:
Predicted values, such as %HRR or %MHR
More accurately using measured HR, VT1, and VT2
Clients are categorized based on their current health, fitness levels, and goals
Not every client will start in phase 1 – some will already be participating regularly
Only clients with specific performance goals will reach phase 4
Refer to Table 11-8
By utilizing the assessment and programming tools in each phase, personal trainers can develop individualized cardiorespiratory programs for clients ranging from sedentary to endurance athletes.
Clients may be in different phases for cardiorespiratory training and functional movement and resistance training based on their current health, fitness, exercise-participation levels, and goals.

49. PHASE 1: AEROBIC-BASE TRAINING OVERVIEW
Primary focus – help sedentary clients become regular exercisers by creating positive exercise experiences
No fitness assessments are required prior to exercise in this phase
Focus on steady-state exercise in zone 1 (below HR at VT1)
Gauge by the client’s ability to talk (below talk test threshold) and/or RPE of __________________
Do not exceed a 10% increase in duration versus the week prior
Progress to phase 2 when:
The client can sustain steady-state cardiorespiratory exercise for 20–30 minutes in zone 1 (RPE of 3–4)
The client is comfortable with assessments
For the most part, early training efforts should feature continuous exercise at zone 1 intensity. Depending on how sedentary a person was prior to beginning the program, this level of easy exercise may be continued for as little as two weeks or for more than six weeks. The beginning duration of exercise should match what the client is able to perform. For some, this might be 15 continuous minutes, while for others it might be only 5 to 10 continuous minutes. From that point, duration should be increased at a rate of no more than 10% from one week to the next until the client can perform 30 minutes of continuous exercise.

50. PHASE 1: CARDIORESPIRATORY-TRAINING PROGRESSION

51. PHASE 2: AEROBIC-EFFICIENCY TRAINING OVERVIEW
Primary focus – increase duration and introduce intervals to improve aerobic efficiency, fitness, and health
Administer the submaximal talk test to determine HR at VT1
No need to measure VT2 in phase 2
Increase workload at VT1 (increase HR at VT1), then introduce _____________________________________(RPE of 5) to improve aerobic efficiency and add variety
Progress low zone 2 intervals by increasing the work interval times and later decreasing the recovery interval time
As the client progresses, introduce intervals in the upper end of zone 2 (RPE of 6)
Many clients will stay in this phase for years
Progress to phase 3 if a client has event-specific goals, or is a fitness enthusiast looking for increased challenges and fitness gains.
This phase of cardiorespiratory training is dedicated to enhancing the client’s aerobic efficiency by progressing the program through increased duration of sessions, increased frequency of sessions when possible, and the introduction of zone 2 intervals.
At the beginning of phase 2, the trainer should have the client perform the submaximal talk test to determine HR at VT1. This HR will be utilized for programming throughout the phase, and will need to be reassessed periodically as fitness improves to see if the HR at VT1 has increased and training intensities need to be adjusted.
Aerobic intervals are introduced at a level that is just above VT1 HR, or an RPE of 5. The goal of these intervals is to improve aerobic efficiency by raising the intensity of exercise performed at VT1, improve the client’s ability to utilize fat as a fuel source at intensities just below VT1, improve exercise efficiency at VT1, and add variety to the exercise program.
Intervals should start out relatively brief (initially about 60 seconds), with an approximate hard-to-easy ratio of 1:3 (e.g., a 60-second work interval followed by a 180-second recovery interval), eventually progressing to a ratio of 1:2 and then 1:1.
The duration of these intervals can be increased in regular increments, depending on the goals of the exerciser, but should be increased cautiously over several weeks depending on the client’s fitness level. As a general principle, the exercise load (calculated from the session RPE or the integrated time in the zone) should be increased by no more than 10% per week.

52. PHASE 2: CARDIORESPIRATORY-TRAINING PROGRESSION

53. PHASE 3: ANAEROBIC-ENDURANCE TRAINING OVERVIEW
Primary focus – help clients with endurance performance goals and/or are performing 7+ hours of cardiorespiratory exercise per week
Administer the ____________________test to determine HR at VT2
The majority of cardiorespiratory training time is spent in zone 1 (70–80%)
Interval and higher-intensity sessions are focused in zone 2 (>10%) and zone 3 (10–20%)
Progressively increase training volume (<10% per week) until the total weekly volume reaches a maximum of 3 times the anticipated duration of the target event
Many clients will never train in phase 3, as non-competitive goals can be reached in phase 2.
Only clients with very specific goals for increasing speed for short bursts at near-maximal efforts during competitions will progress to phase 4.
Program design during this phase should be focused on helping the client enhance his or her aerobic efficiency to ensure completion of goal events, while building anaerobic endurance to achieve endurance-performance goals.
Improved anaerobic endurance will help the client perform physical work at or near VT2 for an extended period, which will result in improved endurance, speed, and power to meet primary performance goals.
Individuals who increase each of these variables too quickly are at risk for burnout and overuse injuries. The trainer can help clients avoid overtraining by distributing zone 1 training time across warm-ups, cool-downs, moderate-intensity workouts focused on increasing distance and/or exercise time, recovery intervals following zone 2 and 3 work intervals, and recovery workouts on days following higher-intensity workouts. By completing adequate zone 1 training time, clients will have the mental and physical energy required to perform their zone 2 and 3 intervals as planned.
The frequency of zone 2 and 3 interval workouts will be client-specific, based on the client’s goals, available training time, available recovery time, and outside stressors.
Only clients who have very specific goals for increasing speed for short bursts at near-maximal efforts during endurance or athletic competitions will move on to phase 4.

54. PHASE 3: ANAEROBIC-ENDURANCE TRAINING

55. PHASE 4: ANAEROBIC-POWER TRAINING OVERVIEW
Primary focus–improve phosphagen energy pathways and buffer large accumulations of blood lactate:
This improves speed for short bursts at near-maximal efforts during endurance or athletic competitions.
A similar distribution to phase 3 training times:
Zone 1: 70–80% of training time
Zone 2: <10% of training time
Zone 3: 10–20% of training time
Zone 3 training includes very intense anaerobic-power intervals.
Clients generally only work in phase 4 during specific training cycles prior to competition.
Even elite athletes will only spend part of a given year performing phase 4 training cycles to prepare for specific competitions. This type of training should not generally be viewed as cardiorespiratory training. It is entirely supplemental and designed for muscular accommodation.
Intervals will be very short sprints or hill sprints designed to tax the phosphagen stores in the muscles and create a rapid rise in blood lactate levels. These short, highly intense intervals (RPE of 9 to 10) will be followed by long recovery intervals that may be 10 to 20 times longer than the work intervals.
These intervals should be performed only once per week as a complement to the full endurance-training program.

56. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR YOUTH
In youth, there are two primary considerations:
Preventing early overspecialization
Protecting against orthopedic trauma from training too much
Prior to the age of puberty, children should:
Engage in 60 minutes or more of lightly structured activity
Perform a variety of activities to allow for the development of motor skills and fitness
Perform intermittent activity rather than sustained activity
Keep the intensity low enough to be fairly comfortable
Ultimately, the goals is to establish a long-term enjoyment of physical activity.

57. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR OLDER ADULTS
In older individuals, there are four overriding considerations that dictate modification of the exercise program:
Avoiding cardiovascular risk
Avoiding orthopedic risk
The need to preserve muscle tissue
The rate at which older individuals adapt to training
Older individuals often have:
More pre-existing orthopedic problems
A loss of elasticity from musculoskeletal system
A reduced bone mineral density, especially women
A tendency to lose muscle mass (sarcopenia)

58. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR OLDER ADULTS
Despite fitness level, older adults have a slower training response:
May be from prior musculoskeletal injuries
From generally increased fragility
In men, lower testosterone concentrations to synthesize new proteins
Intense training causes microdamage combined with overall slower healing
Therefore, older adults may be less tolerant of:
_________training loads
___________________in training loads
Single-mode exercise
Stop-and-go game-type activities
More than two hard or long training sessions per week