1. AP Unit 0: Summer Packet
Lundquist

2. Chemical Foundations
Unit 0.1

3. Matter takes up space, has mass, exhibits inertia
composed of atoms only 100 or so different types

4. Matter
Most reactions are reversible

5. Chemistry The study of matter, energy, and the changes between the two
Central science
EVERYTHING relates to chemistry
MHS

6. Scientific Method Good Experimental design is key Theory – explain WHY
Lots of repetitions
Few contaminants
Theory – explain WHY
Theory of evolution: why we all share the same genetic makeup but are different
Law – something that consistently happens
Law of gravity: everything falls down

7. Scientific Laws in Chemistry
Law of conservation of mass
Law of conservation of energy
Massreactant = Massproducts
The reason reactions must be balanced
First law of thermodynamics
Energyrxt=Energyprod
Energy can not be created or destroyed only rearranged into various forms. Even matter is simply an organized form of energy.

8. Metric System (SI Units)
Units of measurement
Metric System (SI Units)
English system
A gram is how many molecules are in a mole of hydrogen
1oC is the amount of energy 1g water has.
A joule is the amount of energy it takes to raise that by 1oc
A lb, a gallon, a calorie have NOTHING in common

9. Base Units

10. Powers of 10

11. Derived Units Volume Amount of space a substance occupies
Unit is Liters (L)
Commonly used milliliters (mL)

12. Though you will hear them interchangeably they are NOT the same.
Mass and Weight
Mass
Weight
Grams (g)
Resistance to changes in motion (inertia)
Amount of matter present
VIDEO
A force (N)
The response of mass to gravity
Varies with altitude – the closer you are to the source the stronger the pull
Though you will hear them interchangeably they are NOT the same.

13. Measurements Accuracy Precision correctness
How close a value is to an Accepted value
Reproducibility
How close your values are to each other

14. Precision The degree to which a measurement is known
What a devise is rated for
On analog devised always report ±10%
Always go 1 place past what a devise is rated for

15. Significant Figures What values are KNOWN
Help define the precision of the measurements
Counting numbers = ∞
There are 3 sheep
known values = ∞
1 mole is x 1023
ALL others must follow these rules:
Non-zeroes are significant
49 = 2 sig fig
523 = 3 sig fig
Zeros are placeholders
100 = 1 sig fig
0.047 = 2 sig fig
Zero can be significant if:
It is sandwiched
101 = 3 sig figs
60200 = 3 sig fig
It is at the end & after a decimal
= 4 sig fig
= 8 sig fig

16. Multiplying & Dividing
Using Sig Figs
Adding & Subtracted
Multiplying & Dividing
Carry out the math
Round to the LEAST number of decimal places
= ≈100
Carry out the math
Round to the LEAST number of sig. figs
100. x 0.05 = 5 ≈ 5.0

17. AP significant figures
ALWAYS REPORT 3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The AP test will have 1 point testing your knowledge of sig. figs. Other wise they will accept answers that are ±1 sig fig. All most every question has 3 sig. fig. Therefore if you report with 3 sig fig always you’re most likely to get it correct.

18. Dimensional Analysis
Stringing proportions along so that the units cancel out
Works because proportions are reversible

19. Temperature Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin Based off the brine water
Not representative of kinetic energy
Celsius
Based off pure water
Kelvin
Based off kinetic energy in matter

20. Density How compact the atoms of a substance are
Dense objects sink below those with lower densities
Temperature dependent

21. States of Matter NOT ABOUT BONDS, all about attractions (IMFs)
Solids
STRONG IMFs
Hold molecules/atoms as close together as possible
Hold a shape
Have a volume (can’t get closer together)
Movement is vibrational only

22. States of Matter NOT ABOUT BONDS, all about attractions (IMFs)
Liquid
strong IMFs
Hold molecules/atoms close together but they are able to move around one another
Have a volume (can’t get closer together)
Movement doesn’t allow a shape
Movement is proportional to temperature

23. States of Matter NOT ABOUT BONDS, all about attractions (IMFs)
Gas
NO IMFs
molecules/atoms have NO attraction and therefore spread out (2nd law of thermo.)
Space between them is INFINIANT compared to their own volume (can be compressed)
Movement is proportional to temperature

24. Vocabulary Atom Molecule / Compound Smallest unit of matter
2 or more atoms

25. Vocabulary
Pure substance
Any substance with a uniform composition

26. Vocabulary
Mixture
2 or more pure substances

27. Heterogeneous Mixture
Vocabulary
Homogeneous Mixture
Heterogeneous Mixture
Equal distribution of particles throughout
Air
Milk
Alloys
Visibly distinguishable parts
Oil & water
Underwater lakes

28. Separation of Mixtures based on physical properties
Filtration
Fractional Crystallization

29. Separation of Mixtures based on physical properties
Distillation
Chromatography

30. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
Unit 0.2

31. History Blacksmithing used ore since 1000BCE
Greek philosophers proposed that everything was made of the 4 “elements”
Democritus proposed that there was an invisible component of stuff called “atomos”

32. History Alchemy for the next 2000 years Constant pursuit of Au
Lots of BAD science
Based on belief and mythology
But some good science
Developed a structure for the scientific method
Theory development & peer review

33. History Robert Boyle (16th centery)
First chemist to perform numerical experiments on gases and changes in volume
First to develop an theory of elements

34. History
Combustion
Stahl – burnt objects release “phlogiston” which saturated the air and puts the fire out
Priestley – dephlogisticated air is actually oxygen an element

35. The Law of Conservation of Mass
History
Priestley’s discovery lead to an explosion in combustion research (hahaha)
CO2, H2, N2, and O2 are discovered
Lavoisier
Defined combustion (when something burns in air and produces 1+ oxides)
Writes first chemistry textbook
Published the law of conservation of mass
Executed during the French revolution because he was a tax collector
The Law of Conservation of Mass
Matter can not be created nor destroyed

36. The Law of Definite Proportions
History
The Law of Definite Proportions
A compound always contains the same ratio of its elements
Dalton
Proposed the law of definite proportions
Went on to develop the atomic theory of matter

37. The Law of Multiple Proportions:
History
The Law of Multiple Proportions:
When two elements combine to form a series of compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with 1 gram of the first element can always be reduced to small whole numbers.
Dalton
Also proposed the law of multiple proportions
Elements form in whole number ratios, different compounds are those elements in different ratios

38. History Dalton’s Atomic Theory All matter is made of atoms.
Indivisible
indestructible
All the atoms of an element are identical
in both weight and chemical properties.
Each element is unique
Compounds are formed by the combination of different atoms in the ratio of small whole numbers.
A chemical reaction involves only the rearrangement of atoms;
atoms are not created / destroyed

39. History & Now Dalton’s atomic theory Modifications:
Atoms can be destroyed (Manhattan project)
Atoms of a element do differ mass (known as isotopes – some have more neutrons)
There are things smaller then an atom (p+, n0, e-)

40. History Gay-Lussac Found that if you heat a gas it expands Avogadro
Hypothesized, using Gay- Lussac’s work, that the more gas you had the greater the volume it would occupy
Was ignored for 5 decades 
People started look into the atom

41. History J. J. Thomson Using the newly discovered vaccuum
Passed an electrical current a “ray” was made at the cathode (-- end)
Called it a cathode ray
Ray was attracted to (+) poles and repelled by (-) ones

42. History J. J. Thomson Found ALL metals produced this ray
SO all matter contained this (-) thing, now called an electron
Found that the charge was x 108 C/g
Since metals are neutral there had to be something positive to cancel it out
Plum Pudding Model

43. History Millikan Found the mass of an electron using Oil
Electrons Mass = 9.11 × 10−31 kg.

44. History
Becquerel
Found that substances coated in U produced an image without light
Coined the term radioactive
The U was releasing material
3 types (discovered later)
Alpha 𝐻𝑒
Beta −1 𝑒 −1
Gamma 0 0 g

45. History Rutherford Tested the plumb pudding model
Set up U to release a particles at Au foil
Since the a’s were so big they should blast through the foil

46. History Rutherford Several particles were deflected
Reasoned that there had to be a dense core to the atom
Was positive
Developed the nuclear model
Most of the atom must be empty space

47. HURRAY NO MORE HISTORY TODAY!!!

48. Modern Atomic Structure
Elements
Anything made out of only one type of atom
92 natural, everything else is manmade
All matter is made of them, just different combinations
Compounds – combinations of 2+ elements
Molecules – 2+ atoms

49. Atomic Structure

50. Atomic Symbols Element name Atomic number (Z) Symbol
AKA nuclear charge
Symbol
1 upper case, 0-2 lower case
Average atomic mass
Average of every known atom
Weighted average
Atomic mass (A)
Generally rounded for Isotope notation
Isotope Notation

51. Atomic Mass
The sum of p+ and n0
The mass of an e- is negligible

52. Isotopes DON’T MESS THIS UP!
Atoms of the same element (same nuclear charge)
Different MASS
Change in the number of NEUTRONS!

53. The Periodic Table Ductile Malleable Luster “sea of electrons”
Good conductors

54. The Periodic Table
Some have odd symbols

55. When mixed with water produce heat and H2 (g)
The Periodic Table
Most reactive metals
Not found in nature
When mixed with water produce heat and H2 (g)

56. Form basic solutions when placed in water (OH-)
The Periodic Table
Form basic solutions when placed in water (OH-)

57. WIDE variety of properties
The Periodic Table
WIDE variety of properties

58. The Periodic Table MOST reactive elements NOT found in nature
Extreme oxidizers (steal e-)

59. The Periodic Table Inert (non-reactive) Low energy
Have electrons in a “stable octet”
Don’t form compounds (except Xe in extreme conditions)

60. Chemical bonds  intramolecular forces
Molecules and Ions
Electrons are the only subatomic particles involved in bonding and chemical reactions
Chemical bonds  intramolecular forces

62. Molecules and Ions Ionic Bonds Salts
Formula is the simplest ratio of ions to each other
Cation
(+) ions
Less electrons
Anions
(-) ions
Polyatomic ions – groups of elements more stable in a particular ratio
More electrons
Metals
Nonmetals

63. Molecules and Ions Covalent Bonds Molecules Share electrons
Individual ratios of each element
Formulas are the ACTUAL number of each element present
Nonmetals

64. Nomenclature Ionic Bonds Based on charges Known charges are NOT noted
Cations are named first!

65. Nomenclature Covalent Bonds Number Prefix 1 Mono- 2 Di- 3 Tri- 4
Tetra- 5
Penta- 6
Hexa- 7
Hepta- 8
Octa- 9
Nona- 10
Deca-
Covalent Bonds
Based on ACTUAL number of each element present
Use prefixes
Least electronegative element goes first
Central element goes first
Element furthest from fluorine goes first
Mono cannot be used on the first element

66. Nomenclature Acids Start with Hydrogen
Named based off ionic nomenclature
-ate  -ic acid
-ite  -ous acid
-ide  hydro- -ic acid

67. Nomenclature Antique names Formula Name H2O Water NH3 Ammonia CH4
Methane