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Sociology in Modules Richard T. Schaefer
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Minority Racial and Ethnic Groups
Racial group: group set apart from others because of obvious physical differences Ethnic group: group set apart from others primarily because of its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns
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Minority Groups Minority group: subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their own lives Properties of minority groups include: Unequal treatment Distinguishing physical or cultural characteristics Involuntary membership Solidarity In-group marriage
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Race Research shows that race is not a meaningful way of differentiating people Racial group refers to minorities
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Race Social Construction of Race
Society socially constructs which differences are important Racial formation: sociohistorical process in which racial categories are created, inhabited, transformed, and destroyed Creation of reservation system for Native Americans “One-drop rule”
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Race Recognition of Multiple Identities
1900: DuBois predicted “the color line” as foremost problem of 20th century Immigration from Latin America shows fluid nature of race formation 2010 Census: over 9 million people in U.S. reported they were of two or more races Half the people classified as multiracial under age 18
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Table 31-1: Racial and Ethnic Groups in the United States, 2010
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Figure 31-1: Racial and Ethnic Groups in the United States, 1500–2060 (Projected)
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Ethnicity Ethnic group set apart from others because of its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns Distinction between racial and ethnic groups not always clear Distinction between racial and ethnic groups socially significant
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Prejudice and Discrimination
Historic achievements of racial and ethnic minorities, but bias-related incidents continue College campus incidents: Student-run newspapers and radio stations White supremacist organizations Violent clashes between White and Black students
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Prejudice Prejudice: negative attitude toward an entire category of people Ethnocentrism: tendency to assume one’s culture and way of life are superior to others Racism: belief that one race is supreme and others are innately inferior Hate crimes Stereotypes: unreliable generalizations about all members of a group that do not recognize individual differences within the group
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Color-Blind Racism Color-blind racism: use of principle of race neutrality to defend racially unequal status quo Idea that society should be color-blind perpetuates racial inequality Color line still in place, even if more people refuse to acknowledge its existence
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Discriminatory Behavior
Discrimination: denial of opportunities and equal rights to people on an arbitrary basis Prejudiced attitudes are not the same as discriminatory behavior Discrimination persists even for the most educated and qualified minority group members Glass ceiling: invisible barrier blocking promotion of qualified individuals in work environment because of gender, race, or ethnicity
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Figure 31-2: U.S. Median Income by Race, Ethnicity, and Gender
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The Privileges of the Dominant
White privilege: rights or immunities granted to people as a benefit or favor simply because they are White Institutional Discrimination Denial of opportunities and equal rights that results from operations of a society Affirmative action: positive efforts to recruit minority members or women for jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities
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Sociological Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity
Functionalists: racial prejudice and discrimination positive for dominant groups Conflict theorists: economic structure a central factor in exploitation of minorities Labeling theorists: ways minorities are singled out for differential treatment by law enforcement Interactionists: everyday contact contributes to tolerance or hostility
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Functionalist Perspective
Nash’s three functions that racially prejudiced beliefs provide to the dominant group: Moral justification for maintaining unequal society Discourage subordinate groups from questioning their status Suggest that any major social change would bring greater poverty to the minority
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Functionalist Perspective
Rose: dysfunctions associated with racism Society that practices discrimination fails to use resources of all individuals Discrimination aggravates social problems Society must invest time and money to defend barriers to full participation Racial prejudice undercuts goodwill and diplomatic relations between nations
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Conflict Perspective Exploitation theory: racism keeps minorities in low-paying jobs and supplies dominant group with cheap labor Too limited to explain all prejudice
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Labeling Perspective Racial profiling: arbitrary action initiated by an authority based on race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than on person’s behavior Practice often based on explicit stereotypes Continues despite overwhelming evidence that profiling is misleading In 2010, 53 percent of Americans favored “ethnic and religious profiling” of air travelers
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Interactionist Perspective
Contact hypothesis: interracial contact between people of equal status in cooperative circumstances will cause them to become less prejudiced and to abandon old stereotypes
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Table 32-1: Sociological Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity
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Spectrum of Intergroup Relations
Racial and ethnic groups can relate to one another in a variety of ways, from friendships and intermarriages to hostility Genocide: deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation Expulsion of a people: another extreme means of acting out racial or ethnic prejudice Secession: failure to resolve ethnic or racial conflict results in drawing formal boundaries between the groups
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Segregation Segregation: physical separation of two groups of people in terms of residence, workplace, social events Generally, dominant group imposes pattern on minority group Apartheid: Republic of South Africa severely restricted the movement of Blacks and non-Whites
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Table 32-2: Segregated Metropolitan America
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Amalgamation Amalgamation: happens when majority group and minority group combine to form a new group Belief in the U.S. as a “melting pot” does not adequately describe dominant-subordinate relations in the U.S.
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Assimilation Assimilation: process through which a person forsakes his or her cultural tradition to become part of a different culture Assimilation progressed further in the U.S. than in Europe, although more slowly than in Canada
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Pluralism Pluralism: based on mutual respect among various groups in a society for one another’s cultures In U.S., pluralism more of an ideal than a reality Switzerland exemplifies pluralistic state
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Figure 32-1: Spectrum of Intergroup Relations
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Race and Ethnicity in the United States
Racial and ethnic makeup of present-day society determined by: Immigration Colonialism Slavery
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Figure 33-1: Minority Population by County
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African Americans One out of every four Blacks is poor
Contemporary institutional discrimination and individual prejudice against African Americans rooted in history of slavery Civil Rights movement of the 1960s Black power: rejected assimilation into White middle-class society Blacks suffer in terms of their life chances Blacks remain significantly underrepresented
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Native Americans About 2.2 million Native Americans represent array of cultures Life remains difficult for 554 tribal groups By 1990s, increasing number claim identity as Native American 2009: federal government settled 13-year-old lawsuit for recovery of lease payments due on tribal lands Introduction of gambling on Indian reservations transformed the lives of some
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Asian Americans One of the fastest growing segments of U.S. population
Diverse groups of people Ironically often held up as unqualified success story Asian immigrants found disproportionately in low-paying service occupations Better-educated Asian Americans concentrated near top in professional and managerial positions
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Figure 33-2: Asian American and Pacific Islander Population by Origin
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Asian Americans Chinese Americans Asian Indians
Encouraged to immigrate to U.S. from to 1880 1882: Chinese Exclusion Act Now, over 3 million Chinese Americans Asian Indians Second largest Asian group Number over 2.8 million Diverse population
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Asian Americans Filipino Americans 2.6 million in U.S.
Classified as Asian but also reflect centuries of Spanish and U.S. colonial rule Significant percentage are well-educated professionals who work in health care Drained medical establishment in the Philippines Send significant amount of their income back to their extended families (remittances) Strong loyalty to family and Catholic church have precluded need for social organizations
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Asian Americans Vietnamese Americans Korean Americans
Primarily came to U.S. during and after Vietnam War Gravitated toward the larger urban areas Korean Americans Over 1.4 million Korean Americans in the U.S. Initial wave between 1903 and 1910 Second wave after Korean War in 1953 Third wave started with 1965 Immigration Act
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Asian Americans Japanese Americans
Issei: first generation of Japanese immigrants In August 1943, 113,000 Japanese Americans forced into camps in response to World War II In 1988, U.S. established $1.25 billion trust fund to pay reparations
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Arab Americans Nearly 4 million people of Arab ancestry reside in the U.S. Cannot be characterized as having specific family type, gender role, or occupational pattern Profiling of potential terrorists has put Arab and Muslim Americans under surveillance
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Figure 33-3: Arab American Religious Affiliations
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Latinos Largest minority in the U.S. with more than 50 million
Census Bureau data: Latino population now outnumbers African American population in 6 of the 10 largest U.S. metropolitan areas Groups share heritage of Spanish language and culture, which can cause serious problems in assimilation
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Figure 33-4: Hispanic Population by Origin
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Latinos Mexican Americans
Accounted for 42 percent of the nation’s population growth in the 2000–2010 decade Subdivided into those descended from residents of annexed territories after the Mexican-American War and those who have immigrated from Mexico to the U.S. Since at least 2000, Mexican Americans born in the U.S. far exceeded those who immigrated
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Latinos Puerto Ricans Hold U.S. citizenship
Many migrated to New York and other eastern cities Experienced serious poverty in the U.S. and on the island Have not been as successful as Mexican Americans in organizing for their rights
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Latinos Cuban Americans
Immigration began in earnest following Castro’s assumption of power in Cuban revolution (1959) First wave included many professionals Recent waves of immigrants less likely to be skilled professionals As a group, Cuban Americans in Miami remain behind Whites in income, rate of employment, and proportion of professionals
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Latinos Central and South Americans
Immigrants from Central and South America a diverse population that has not been closely studied Follow complex classification system that recognizes multitude of color gradients Socially, relations defy generalization
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Jewish Americans Constitute about 2% of population
Like Japanese, many Jewish immigrants became white-color professionals despite prejudice, discrimination Anti-Semitism: anti-Jewish prejudice Jews have not achieved equality in the U.S.
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White Ethnics White ethnics’ ancestors came from Europe in last 150 years Symbolic ethnicity: emphasis on concerns such as ethnic food or political issues rather than deeper ties to one’s ethnic heritage
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Social policy and Racial and Ethnic Inequality: Global Immigration
Worldwide, immigration at all-time high Each year, about 191 million people move from one country to another Mass migrations have had tremendous social impact Who should be allowed in? When should immigration be curtailed?
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Social policy and Racial and Ethnic Inequality: Global Immigration
Looking at the Issue Migration of people not uniform Transnationals: immigrants who sustain multiple social relationships that link their societies of origin with their society of settlement Since 1960s, U.S. encouraged immigration of residents’ relatives and people with specific skills
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Figure 33-5: Legal Migration to the United States
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Social policy and Racial and Ethnic Inequality: Global Immigration
Applying Sociology Research suggests immigrants adapt well to life in the U.S. Immigration performs many valuable functions Immigration also can be dysfunctional
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Social policy and Racial and Ethnic Inequality: Global Immigration
Initiating Policy Long border with Mexico provides opportunity for illegal immigration into U.S. 1986 act outlawed hiring illegal aliens Intense debate over immigration reflects deep value conflicts in cultures of many nations
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Research Today 31-1: Institutional Discrimination in the Voting Booth
Are you a registered voter? If so, how does your local polling place verify voters’ identity? Have you ever had difficulty establishing your identity on election day? Why are citizens and state legislators suddenly so concerned about requiring voters to establish their identity?
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Sociology in the Global Community
33-1: The Aboriginal People of Australia Try to think of a situation in your culture in which the government might forcibly remove a child from his or her family. Do you know anyone who has had such an experience? If so, what were the repercussions? What kind of reasoning do you think lay behind the Australian government’s forced removal of Aboriginal children from their families? In sociological terms, what actually happened?
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Research Today 33-2: Asian Americans: A Model Minority?
Are Asian Americans seen as “whiz kids” at your school? If so, how close to reality do you think that stereotype is? Talk with some Asian American students about their grades and their study habits. Do they all have the same work ethic? How does your own work ethic compare to theirs?
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Taking Sociology to Work
Prudence Hannis, Associate Director, First Nations Post-Secondary Institution, Odanak, Québec What is the dropout rate at your school? What political, cultural, social, and economic conditions might contribute to that dropout rate? In speaking of empowering First Nations women, what sociological perspective do you think Hannis is drawing on?
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