1. Mental health needs of black male college students
Presented by Matthew B. Woodfork, Ph.D.
June 10, 2016

2. Agenda Introduction Mental Health and Psychological Distress
Help-Seeking Attitudes
Counseling Considerations

3. Learning objectives Attendees will be able to:
Identify factors that impact Black male college student mental health and psychological distress
Identify factors that influence help-seeking attitudes of Black male college students
Provide counseling considerations for treating Black male college students

4. Mental Health & Psychological Distress

5. Mental Health
Marks, Smith, Madison, and Junior (2016) sought to provide a “psychological snapshot” (p. 21) of Black male college students in private not-for-profit universities in urban settings
Black males attending private not-for-profit colleges/universities are generally mentally healthy (moderately high self-esteem and low levels of depression), have predominantly positive attitudes, and tend to engage in constructive/productive behaviors (Marks, Smith, Madison, & Junior, 2016)
Academic institutions charged to build upon the aforementioned characteristics, however, these settings may create additional burdens instead at times

6. Educational Attainment
Stress increases in Black men as level of educational increases (Smith, Hung, & Franklin, 2011)
Level of awareness or exposure to racial microagressions may increase given that Black men begin to inhabit historically and predominantly White dominated institutions
May be influenced by felt need to disprove racial stereotypes and that they belong in higher educational settings

7. Stereotyping “You fit the description” (Smith, Allen, & Danley, 2007)
Researchers revealed that Black males are often perceived as “out of place” on campus and illegitimate nonmembers of the campus community
Black males reported psychological stress symptoms consistent with racial battle fatigue – strain resultant of coping with racial microaggressions and racism – (e.g., shock anger, frustration, disappointment, resentment, anxiety, helplessness, hopelessness, and fear)
Black males also reported feeling as though their campus environments were more hostile towards their racial/ethnic group

8. Perceived Racial Discrimination
Students of racial/ethnic minority also may experience more observed or direct experiences of racism than their White counterparts (Griffin et al., 2016)
Hostile college/university climates, marginalization, isolation, racism negatively impact Black male college adjustment, sense of belonging, achievement, and retention (Griffin, Cunningham, & Mwangi, 2016)

9. Perceived Racial Discrimination
Hoggard, Byrd, and Sellers (2015) analyzed the relationship between racial and non-racial stressors reported by African Americans over the course of 4 days
African American males were more likely to report having experienced any type of stressor than their female counterparts
African American males may also perceive more racial discrimination than African American females (Seaton, Caldwell, Sellers, & Jackson, 2008)

10. Perceived Racial Discrimination
Additionally, some researchers posit that African American males are less likely to respond directly or indirectly to racist incidents (Swim, Hyers, Cohen, Fitzgerald, & Bylsma, 2003)
A study by Kaiser and Miller (2001) suggests that African American males may be more likely to minimize acts of racial discrimination
A sample of predominantly White male college students perceived an African American male student as a complainer and viewed him less favorably if he attributed a failing grade to discrimination, regardless of how much discrimination experienced
There can be a social cost to claiming racial discrimination

11. Racial Identity
Racial identity may buffer against poor mental health outcomes
Mahalik, Pierre, and Wan (2006) found that:
Psychological distress was positively correlated with Pre-Encounter and Immersion-Emersion racial identity attitudes
Self-esteem was positively correlated with Internalization attitudes

12. Masculinity
Black males often align with definitions of masculinity that include restricted emotionality and emotional expressivity as indicative of femininity (Rogers, Sperry, & Levant, 2015; Wong, Pituch & Rochlen, 2006)
African American men may view counseling as a threat to masculinity (Lee, 1997)

13. Masculinity
Need to conform to masculine norms may be positively related to lower self-esteem and more psychological distress (Hammond, 2012; Mahalik et al. 2006)
Greater emotional restriction was associated with more depressive symptoms
Self-reliance was associated with less symptoms of depression

14. Masculinity
Mincey, Alfonso, Hackney, and Luque (2015) examined the relationship between Black male college student’s stress coping style and view of masculinity (HBCU and PWI)
Most supported the view of mainstream society (e.g., takes care of business, handles responsibilities, provides for family) which is consistent with research
Males at HBCU endorsed mainstream society/Black masculinity (e.g., a man controls his emotions, I have to prove myself in the academic situation, I have a lot to live up to) perspective more than those at PWI
Positive coping styles predominant (active, positive reframing, self-distraction, religion, acceptance, planning)
Black masculinity – spirituality; mainstream society – spirituality/problem-oriented; primary group – problem-oriented; mainstream society/Black masculinity – disengagement (Africentric Latent Model Groupings)

15. Help-Seeking Attitudes

16. Help-Seeking attitudes
African American men in college may hold negative attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help (So, Williams & Justice, 2010)
Attitudes were examined among both HBCUs and PWIs in Texas
Furthermore, most African American men do not seek counseling (Lee, 1997) and underutilize college counseling centers (Palmer, 2015; Ponterotto, Anderson, & Grieger, 1986)

17. Gender role conflict
Men with higher levels of gender role conflict – experiencing negative consequences of socialized gender roles – held poorer attitudes toward seeking psychological help for mental health concerns (Pederson & Vogel, 2007)

18. Perceived Norms
Perceived family norms and intentions to seek profession psychological help may be related
Researchers indicated that as African American males perceived more negative family appraisal of counseling they endorsed being less willing to seek counseling (Barksdale & Mollock, 2009)

19. Fear & mistrust
Fear of misdiagnosis, hospitalization and treatment may compel African American men to avoid counseling (Whaley, 2001)
Duncan (2003) noted that older, lower SES, Black male college students with lower levels of cultural mistrust – mistrust of Whites (Terrell & Terrell, 1984) – had less negative attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help

20. Religious versus Psychological services
Ayalon and Young (2005) examined the help-seeking behaviors of Black and White college students
Black students less frequently sought psychological/social services compared to White students
Black students more often relied on religious services

21. Counseling Considerations

22. Religion & Spirituality
Religion and spirituality may be an important coping tool for African American males (Mincey et al., 2015)
Encouraging these men to embrace their spirituality may prove beneficial in counseling (Herndon, 2003; Riggins, 2015)
Use of prayer can offer guidance and direction when feeling lost
Offers opportunity to engage with others in a social context
Obtain support from religious institutions
Identify client resources, such as religious affiliation or spiritual beliefs, may help counselors demonstrate an awareness and sensitivity to the values of these men

23. Religion & Spirituality
Identify client resources, such as religious affiliation or spiritual beliefs, may help counselors demonstrate an awareness and sensitivity to the values of African American men
Such discussions may also boost motivation to persist in college, particularly by increasing engagement with support systems and identifying inner strengths

24. Racial Identity
Work with Black males to facilitate racial identity development and positive appraisal of their race
Association between racial discrimination and perceived stress was weaker for students with higher degree of racial centrality (Sellers, Caldwell, Schmeelk-Cone, & Zimmerman, 2008)
Of Black males who experienced racism, those with higher private regard were less likely to exhibit anxiety-related symptoms than those with low private regard (Bynam, Best, Barnes, & Burton, 2008)

25. Redefining Masculinity
Counseling seeks to embody a safe, trusting environment to help clients explore sources of distress
Given the emphasis on restricted emotionality among Black men and perceptions of weakness and femininity for seeking out help or expressing emotions this may be challenging
Counselors should explore Black male client’s beliefs and expectations regarding manhood
Opportunities to redefine manhood/masculinity should be assessed to incorporate a new definition of strength
Importance placed on sense of responsibility (e.g., to family, community, God, themselves, etc.) and interconnectedness should also be explored given possible conceptions of manhood

26. Racial Discrimination
Addressing Black male experiences with perceived racial discrimination
Hoggard and colleagues (2015) emphasize that counselors should be mindful of how variations in racial identity may impact reactions to racial stressors

27. Resilience
Black males in college have the potential and often demonstrate incredible resilience in the face of adversity
Enduring negative racial encounters and associated stress may lead to increased determination to overcome racial and academic obstacles (Smith et al., 2007)
Counselors should acknowledge and nourish the resilience and durability of these clients

28. References
Ayalon, L. & Young, M. A. (2005). Racial group differences in help-seeking behaviors. Journal of Social Psychology, 145(4), 391 – 403.
Barksdale, C. L. & Mollock, S. D. (2006). Perceived norms and mental health seeking among African American college students. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Reearch, 36(3), 285 – 299.
Bynum, M. S., Best, C., Barnes, S. L., & Burton, E. T. (2008). Private regard, identity protection and perceived racism among African American males. Journal of African American Studies, 12, 142 –155.
Duncan, L. E. (2003). Black male college students’ attitudes toward seeking psychological help. Journal of Black Psychology, 29(1), 68 – 86.
Griffin, K. A., Cunningham, E. L., & Mwangi, C. A. G. (2016). Defining diversity: Ethnic differences in Black student’s perceptions of racial climate. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 9(1), 34 – 49.
Herndon, M. K. (2003). Expressions of spirituality among African-American college males. Journal of Men’s Studies, 12, 75 – 84.
Hoggard, L. S., Byrd, C. M., & Sellers, R. M. (2015). The lagged effects of racial discrimination on depressive symptomatology and interactions with racial identity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(2), 216 – 225.
Lee, C. C. (1997). Multicultural issues in counseling: New approaches to diversity (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
Mincey, K., Alfonso, M., Hackney, A., & Luque, J. (2015). The influence of masculinity on coping in undergraduate Black men. Journal of Men’s Studies, 23(3), 315 – 330.
Palmer, R. T. (2015). Examining the prevalence of poor help-seeking behavior among Black men at historically Black colleges and universities. Culture, Society, & Masculinities, 7(1), 33 – 44.
Pederson, E.L., & Vogel, D.L. (2007). Male gender role conflict and willingness to seek counseling: Testing a mediation model on college-aged men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(4), 373–384.
Rogers, B. K., Sperry, H. A., & Levant, R. F. (2015). Masculinities among African American men: An intersectional perspective. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 16(4), 416 – 425.

29. References
Seaton, E. K., Caldwell, C. H., Sellers, R. M., & Jackson, J. S. (2008). The prevalence of perceived discrimination among African American and Caribbean Black youth. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1288–1297.
Sellers, R. M., Caldwell, C. H., Schmeelk-Cone, K. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Racial identity, racial discrimination, perceived stress, and psychological distress among African American young adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44, 302–317.
Smith, W. A., Hung, M., & Franklin, J. D. (2011). Racial battle fatigue and the miseducation of Black men: Racial microaggressions, societal problems, and environmental stress. Journal of Negro Education, 80,
Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., Fitzgerald, D. C., & Bylsma, W. H. (2003). African American college students’ experiences with everyday racism: Characteristics of and responses to these incidents. Journal of Black Psychology, 29,
Whaley, A. L. (2001). Cultural mistrust and men- tal health services for African Americans: A review and meta-analysis. The Counseling Psychologist, 29(4),
Williams, A. & Justice, M. (2010). Attitudes of African American males regarding counseling in four Texas universities. Education, 131(1), 158 – 168.
Wong, Y. J., Pituch, K. A., & Rochlen, A. B. (2006). Men’s restrictive emotionality: An investigation of associations with other emotion-related constructs, anxiety, and underlying dimensions. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 7, 113–126.

30. Thank you