1. WRITING A WELL-ARGUED PAPER
JSGS WRITING WORKSHOP SERIES
Copyright ©Heather McWhinney, 2016

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WORKSHOP LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this workshop, you should be able to:
Develop an academic argument, which addresses counterclaims and counterevidence.
Write a clear thesis statement, which shows a position.
Adjust the strength of your claims.
Distinguish between claims and facts.
Write a rebuttal to a counterargument.

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DEFINITION OF AN ACADEMIC ARGUMENT
An academic argument consists of a central claim or thesis, which you defend based on reason and evidence.
A claim must be debatable. There must be competing perspectives.
Sub-claims are largely expressed in the topic sentences of paragraphs.
Sub-claims are supported by evidence.

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ARGUMENTS ARE MADE IN ALL DISCIPLINES
“A good thesis isn’t just describing something that happened. It’s about arguing for a position, ideally when there are multiple interpretations possible, and you choose one that matches your understanding of the evidence, and you draw out the evidence to support your argument. You deal with counterevidence that … might be interpreted in different ways.” Ann Blair, History professor, Harvard University

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ARGUMENTS ARE MADE IN ALL DISCIPLINES (continued)
“You are the expert, you are the authority and you can say how it can be. Be who you are, and so be strong. Make your claim. Make your argument. That is how knowledge is added to. What we’re really doing is contributing to knowledge, and you can say it’s just a little particle at a time. It’s just a little bit, but sands make the mountain, and every subject and every discipline is made up of relatively small and constant contributions and refinement.” James Engell, Professor of English and Comparative Literature, Harvard University

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ARGUMENTS ARE MADE IN ALL DISCIPLINES (continued)
“Whether you’re doing research or anything else, what you’re selling are your ideas. The way I view expository writing is that it’s practice at writing your ideas in a way that you can sell them to others or market them to others and, in some cases, get people to believe them.” Margo Seltzer, Professor of Computer Science, Harvard University

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ACADEMIC ARGUMENT AS A CONVERSATION
An academic argument is like a polite conversation.
Think of your imagined readers as skeptical and knowledgeable friends
They may raise objections and offer alternative points of view or evidence.
These are known as counterarguments and counterevidence.
You must convince your readers that you have considered every possibility.

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STATING YOUR CONCLUSIONS OR THESIS UP FRONT
Whatever your writing task – a research paper, term paper, exam, or review – you should state your conclusions or your argument at the beginning. “So often, in reading papers of any kind, including published ones, we move along and we come to the best part near the end. So often, that part should be right up front. Readers don’t generally want to know how you thought through things. They want to know what you think now, what you have come to as a position.” James Engell, Professor of English and Comparative Literature, Harvard University

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REVEALING YOUR ARGUMENT IN YOUR THESIS STATEMENT
WHICH OF THESE THESIS STATEMENTS REVEAL AN ARGUMENT?
This paper discusses the use of transdisciplinary research in the study of river ice in northern climates.
Transdisciplinary research offers the most appropriate methods for studying river ice at a time when rivers, their ecosystems, and the communities they sustain are increasingly threatened by climate change.
This paper argues that transdisciplinary research offers the most appropriate methods for studying river ice because it enables researchers from different disciplines to jointly address complex problems at a time when rivers, their ecosystems and the communities they sustain are increasingly threatened by climate change. 3

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ACTIVITY ONE: IDENTIFYING “THESIS” STATEMENTS THAT ESTABLISH A POSITION

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STRENGTH OF CLAIM
WHICH OF THESE THESIS STATEMENTS MAKES THE STRONGEST CLAIM?
This paper argues that jurisdictional chaos among government agencies caused the delays both in communicating the leak of the Echo Valley pipeline and in remediating the oil spill. If government agencies at the federal and provincial level had clearer roles, oil leaks and spills and their cleanup would be more efficient.
Evidence suggests that jurisdictional chaos among government agencies contributed to the delays both in communicating the leak of the Echo Valley pipeline and in remediating the oil spill. If government agencies at the federal and provincial level had clearer roles, oil leaks and spills and their cleanup would likely be more efficient.

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DEALING WITH COUNTERARGUMENTS
You cannot ignore counterarguments and counterevidence.
You can address them in several ways:
Refute (rebut) the counterargument -- point out problems with its logic, evidence, source, or by citing the claims and evidence of academics who disagree with it.
Concede that parts of the counterargument are valid.
Qualify the counterargument by indicating that it may be valid but only under certain conditions.

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KEY TERMS IN ARGUMENTATION
CLAIM – a debatable assertion that something is true. E.g., Adults generally prefer to avoid losses when making decisions.
FACT – a statement in words or symbols that readers accept as true. E.g., 5 – 2 = 3 OR The sky is blue.
DATA – sets of facts, which are often presented in tables, graphs and charts.
EVIDENCE – Facts and data used to support a claim. The results of experimental research from Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1991). Loss aversion in riskless choices. Economics, 106,

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ACTIVITY TWO: IDENTIFYING CLAIMS AND FACTS IN A PARAGRAPH

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PARTS OF AN ARGUMENT
A CLAIM – a debatable assertion that something is true
A SUB-CLAIM – a reason, justification, explanation or cause that flows from the main claim
EVIDENCE – facts and data from a source that support the sub-claim
BRIDGE – a link that connects the evidence to the sub-claim or claim (sometimes unstated)
COUNTERCLAIM – an assertion that contradicts the claim
REFUTATION CLAIM (rebuttal) – a reason for rejecting the counterclaim
CONCESSION – a reason why part of the counterclaim may be worthy of consideration

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EXAMPLE OF PARTS OF AN ARGUMENT
MAIN CLAIM: Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.
SUB-CLAIM ONE (REASON FOR MAIN CLAIM): Driving a car is a typical citizen's greatest contribution to air pollution.
EVIDENCE: Two studies in peer-reviewed academic journals found that 55% of an American’s annual emissions come from driving.
BRIDGE TO CLAIM: Because cars are the largest source of privately produced air pollution, switching to hybrid cars decreases overall emissions. 4

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EXAMPLE OF PARTS OF AN ARGUMENT (continued)
MAIN CLAIM: Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.
SUB-CLAIM TWO (REASON FOR MAIN CLAIM): The average vehicle stays on the road for about 12 to 15 years.
EVIDENCE TWO: Data from three peer-reviewed articles on vehicle emissions.
BRIDGE TO CLAIM: Since most cars pollute the environment for many years, a decision to switch to a hybrid car could make a long-term impact on pollution levels. 5

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EXAMPLES OF PARTS OF AN ARGUMENT (continued)
MAIN CLAIM: Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.
SUB-CLAIM THREE (REASON FOR MAIN CLAIM): Hybrid cars combine a gasoline engine with a battery-powered electric motor.
EVIDENCE THREE: Facts confirmed from three peer-reviewed journals.
BRIDGE TO CLAIM: This combination of technologies means that less pollution is produced. 6

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EXAMPLES OF PARTS OF AN ARGUMENT (continued)
MAIN CLAIM: Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.
COUNTERCLAIM: Instead of focusing on hybrid cars, which still encourage a culture of driving even though these vehicles reduce pollution, government policy should focus on building and encouraging use of mass transit systems.
REFUTATION CLAIM: Although mass transit is an environmentally sound idea that should be encouraged, it is not feasible in many rural and suburban areas or for people who must commute to work; thus, hybrid cars are a better solution for much of the nation's population.  
CONCESSION: Although mass transit is an environmentally sound idea that should be encouraged …

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ACTIVITY THREE: IDENTIFYING CLAIMS AND COUNTERCLAIMS IN A STUDENT PAPER

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ORGANIZING THE DEVELOPMENT OF YOUR ARGUMENT
CENTRAL CLAIM
INTRODUCTION
REASON/SUB-CLAIM
EVIDENCE
SOURCES
COUNTERCLAIM
COUNTER-EVIDENCE
REFUTATION
CONCLUSION 7

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USING A FLOWCHART TO MAP YOUR ARGUMENT
The next slide contains a planning map filled in with a student’s argument.
The student has included page numbers in the source boxes to keep track of her evidence.
Flowcharts or maps can help you visualize how your paper will unfold, but you can use an outline instead if you prefer.
You can create your own maps in Word or you can sketch a map with pencil and paper.

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GOVERNMENTS IN THE NORTH SHOULD INVEST IN IK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
BACKGROUND: COMPETING DEFINITIONS OF IK – DEFINITION USED IN PAPER
DEFINITIONS OF IK
MAURO (2000, P. 1211); BIRD (2003, P. 230); ABELE (2000, P. IV); GNWT WEBSITE (2016, PARA 5)
SUB-CLAIM/REASON (1): USING IK IN EA RECOGNIZES THE DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS
GNWT POLICY ACKNOWLEDGES INDIGENOUS PEOPLES HAVE RIGHTS USE THEIR KNOWLEDGE ON THEIR LAND
ABELE (2000, P. III); MAURO (2000, P. 1210)
UN CONVENTIONS AND DECLARATION ACKNOWLEDGE THESE RIGHTS
MAURO (2000, P. 1212)
SUB-CLAIM/REASON (2): IK PROMOTES BIODIVERSITY & RESPONSIBLE LAND MANAGEMENT
BIODIVERSITY INCREASINGLY THREATENED BY DEVELOPMENT. EXAMPLES OF USE OF IK AND THE NEED FOR BALANCE
MAURO (2000, P. 1213); KEITH (2011, P. 35)
REASON AGAINST: IK IS INCOMPATIBLE WITH SCIENCE
IK CANNOT BE VALIDATED
WIDDOWSON & HOWARD (2000, P. 87)
BENEFITS ARE UNCERTAIN
WIDDOWSON & HOWARD (2000, P. 88)
REBUTTAL: IK IS COMPATIBLE WITH SCIENCE
IK CAN BE VALIDATED: METHODS FOR VALIDATION
BERKES (1997, P. 6)
ABELE, P. IV (2000)
WENZEL, 149 (1999)
IK HAS BENEFITED EAS
BERKES (1997, P. 7)
BEAR (2003, P. 55)
CARTER (2005P. 202)
SAMPLE FLOWCHART OF A STUDENT’S ARGUMENT 8

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SUMMARY
Argumentation is key to all academic writing.
An argument consists of a central claim or thesis and sub-claims. These should be supported with evidence from peer-reviewed literature.
A claim or sub-claim must be debatable.
A good argument deals with counterarguments and counterevidence.

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ENDNOTES
1, 2 Department of Psychology, Harvard College. (2012). Writing for psychology: A guide for psychology concentrators. Retrieved from _from_printer.pdf 3 Courtesy of a former student. 4, 5, 6 Owl Purdue. (2016). Organizing your argument. OWL Purdue Online Writing Lab. Retrieved from 7, 8 ReasoningLab: Tools for critical thinking, writing and decision making. (n.d.). Retrieved from writing-with-rationale/