1. Atoms and the periodic table
Recall that all substances are made of atoms
Explain that an element is a substance made of only one sort of atom.
Describe the location of different elements within the periodic table

2. The periodic table of the elements
In the periodic table elements that have similar properties are found in the same vertical column or “GROUP”.
These all have the same number of OUTER ELECTRONS.
We call the rows in the periodic table “PERIODS” and elements are arranged in order of increasing ATOMIC NUMBER
Each element has a different chemical symbol

3. Periodic table
As you can see MOST elements are metals

4. Sub atomic particles
Recall that atoms of each element are represented by a chemical symbol
Describe the composition of an atom and the properties of sub-atomic particles
Explain that atoms of a particular element all have the same number of protons.

7. Atomic number and particles
Recall that atoms are made up of protons neutrons and electrons. Explain that atoms of an element have the same number of protons and electrons. Use the mass number to work out how many neutrons there are in an atom.

8. How many particles MASS NUMBER
ATOMIC NUMBER – elements are arranged in order of this

9. How many particles Number of neutrons = MASS NUMBER – ATOMIC NUMBER
= 12 – 6
= 6
This is the number of protons (6)
This is the number of electrons (6)

10. Test yourself
Use a periodic table to work out how many protons, neutrons and electrons the following elements have?
Element
Number of protons
Number of neutrons
Number of electrons
Magnesium
Carbon
Hydrogen
Fluorine
Neon

11. Examination question

12. Electronic Structure
State that electrons occupy different energy levels
Explain that electrons occupy the lowest available energy levels
Draw the electron arrangement for an element

13. Numbers of electrons
Successive levels hold a maximum of:
2, 8, 8, 18

14. Electrons and reactions
The number of electrons in the outer shell gives an element its reactivity.
For example one outer electron is VERY reactive for example Li, Na, K, Rb.
A FULL shell is called a NOBLE GAS. These are VERY UNREACTIVE eg He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe.

15. Noble gases
Oxygen would REACT with substances eg the filament in a lightbulb and would burn
Argon is unreactive and is used to prevent the reaction that would take place in air because there is no oxygen.

16. Examination questions

17. Li, Na, K – anything in common?

18. Compounds and bonding
State that when elements react their atoms join with other atoms to form compounds Describe how bonding involves giving, taking or sharing electrons. Explain that compounds involving metals and non-metals involve ionic bonding and compounds of only non-metals involve covalent bonding.

19. Definitions An element is a substance made from only ONE KIND OF ATOM
A compound is a substance made from one or more types of atoms CHEMICALLY BONDED TOGETHER
A mixture is a number of different elements or compounds NOT BONDED TOGETHER.

20. Na gives Cl an electron we call this ionic bonding
Ionic bonding forms IONS which have positive and negative charges and attract each other

21. Two H atoms share an electron with O we call this covalent bonding
Covalent bonding forms MOLECULES

22. Word and symbol equations
Recall that chemical reactions can be represented by word equations or symbol equations. Describe how no atoms are lost or made during a chemical reaction so the mass of the products equals the mass of the reactants. Calculate the mass of a reactant or product from information about the masses of the other reactants and products in the reaction.

24. Calculating masses
2Li + 2H2O  2LiOH + H2 A piece of lithium weighing 7g is allowed to react with 18g of water. We collect 1g of hydrogen gas in the test tube. How much lithium hydroxide has been made? – 1 = 24 g

25. How to balance
When we balance equations we do not change the small (susbscript numbers)
eg Ca(OH)2 because this would change the compound itself
We do change the LARGE number in front of the compound
Eg 2Ca(OH)2 because this changes the amount.

27. Limestone
State that limestone is mainly composed of the compound calcium carbonate, is quarried and can be used as a building material. Describe how calcium carbonate can be decomposed by heating to make calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. Explain the steps in the limestone cycle.

28. Problems with quarrying
Quarrying is the method that we use to obtain limestone by using explosives to break it into pieces
It produces dust which may cause breathing difficulties such as asthma
It is noisy
It may create more traffic to and from the quarry.
Destroys the landscape and may impact wildlife.

29. Benefits of quarrying Creates local jobs boosting the local economy
Provides building materials a valuable raw material for cement

31. Calcium hydroxide solution
The limestone cycle
Calcium carbonate
Heat calcium carbonate (limestone) strongly it thermally decomposes to form calcium oxide
Calcium oxide
Calcium oxide is another white powder, it reacts exothermically with water to form calcium hydroxide
Calcium hydroxide
Calcium hydroxide reacts with more water to form calcium hydroxide solution .
Calcium hydroxide solution
Calcium hydroxide solution is known as limewater and is used as a test for carbon dioxide.
The cloudy substance formed when carbon dioxide is bubbled through limewater is calcium carbonate or limestone.

32. Heating limestone

33. Other carbonates
Recall that when calcium carbonate (limestone) is heated it thermally decomposes. Apply your knowledge to other metal carbonates such as copper carbonate Compare the reactions of different metal carbonates with acids.

34. Thermal decomposition
Test your knowledge: When calcium carbonate is _________ it thermally __________ to produce calcium oxide. Other metal carbonates decompose on heating in a similar way to calcium _________. Metal carbonate  Metal ______ + ________ [heated, oxide, carbonate, decomposes, carbon dioxide]

35. Word equations
Other metal carbonates decompose on heating in a similar way to calcium carbonate.
Write the word equations for the decomposition of the following carbonates:
Magnesium carbonate (MgCO3)
Zinc carbonate (ZnCO3)
Copper carbonate (CuCO3)
If you are confident write the symbol equations too

36. Acid rain and metal carbonates
Metal carbonates react with acids.
The products are carbon dioxide, a salt and water.
This means that limestone buildings erode with acid rain.

37. Building materials
State that limestone is heated with clay to make cement Explain that mixing cement with sand makes mortar and mixing cement with sand and aggregate makes concrete and uses for each of these Describe the problems of producing cement and the effects of smoke particles from the fuel.

38. Sand content vs. aggregate content
The more sand you add to mortar the WEAKER it becomes.

39. Anomalous results A result which does not follow the expected pattern
Clue – work out the difference between each result to determine the odd one out.

40. Making cement
Cement is made by heating calcium carbonate (limestone) in an oven (called a lime kiln) with clay. These are two types of lime kiln

41. What happens in a lime kiln?
Methane gas is burned (like a Bunsen) to heat the limestone
This produces CO2
Calcium carbonate thermally decomposes
This produces CO2 and calcium oxide
Air is blown through to flush out the CO2 and provide oxygen for the methane to burn
Nitrogen from the air is unreacted.

42. What do I need to know
The financial benefit and expense of obtaining metals Describe how ores and metals are mined Explain that reactive metals need a chemical reaction to turn them into the metal

43. Homework
Read the powerpoint notes and complete the questions AND exam questions on metals and their uses. Due Monday Period 1
We will be recapping and revising metals (C1.3) next week.
Also use workbooks to complete questions up to and including C1.3.

44. Metals and ores
The financial benefit and expense of obtaining metals Describe how ores and metals are mined Explain that reactive metals need a chemical reaction to turn them into the metal

45. What is an ore?
A metal ore is the rock that contains the compound that the metal is found in.
It looks very different to the metal.
It is not usually native metal but a compound such as iron oxide, copper oxide or lead oxide.
The ore has different properties to metals. It does not conduct electricity and cannot be hammered into shape.

46. Mining Ores are extracted from the earth using mining and quarrying.
This can cause damage to the environment if open quarrying is used and may be noisy and dusty.
There will also be lorries and trucks which produce carbon dioxide as they carry the mined ore away from the quarry or mine.

47. Reactivity Series and Extraction
Recall the position of different elements on the reactivity series Describe how the position of an element on the reactivity series determines how to extract it Explain that carbon is used in a blast furnace to reduce iron oxide to iron

48. Reactivity series All metal elements have a different reactivity.
Some such as sodium are very reactive even in air.
Others such as gold are extremely unreactive

49. Recalling the reactivity series
More reactive
Less reactive
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Titanium
Carbon
Zinc
Iron
Lead
Copper
Gold

50. Extracting metals
A metal can be extracted from a compound by reacting with an element higher up in the reactivity series.
So for example copper is more reactive than silver.
If we add copper metal to silver nitrate compound we make silver metal.
This is called a DISPLACEMENT REACTION

51. Extracting Iron from its ore
Carbon is part of the reactivity series and is higher (more reactive) than iron.
This means iron can be extracted from its ore using carbon.
This takes place inside a BLAST FURNACE

52. Iron and Alloys
Recall that most iron is converted into steels. Describe how steels are alloys since they are mixtures of iron with carbon. Explain that alloys can be designed to have properties for specific uses.

53. Why make steel? Pure iron is relatively soft and not very strong.
The iron from the blast furnace is very hard and brittle. It contains about 4% carbon and is used as cast iron.
We need an iron that is in between these two extremes.

54. The BOS process

56. Alloys with carbon Low carbon steel is easily shaped (more bendy).
High carbon steel is hard and brittle (strong but not easily shaped).
Look at the diagrams and see if you can work out why.

58. Why recycle? You need to know three main reasons:
Preserve raw materials and ores
Save the energy used extracting new metal from its ore
Reduce the waste going to landfill.

59. More reactive metals
Recall that elements below carbon in the reactivity series can be reduced from their ores using carbon in a furnace. Describe how more reactive metals can be obtained using electrolysis or displacement by magnesium Explain why this means that aluminium and titanium are expensive metals to obtain and how important it is to recycle them.

60. Titanium Manufacture
What is the chemical process called when you obtain a metal from its ore?
Reduction
Which metal is used to extract titanium?
Magnesium
Why is titanium so expensive?
The process takes a long time, uses expensive raw material, uses a lot of energy and manpower.

61. Aluminium and electrolysis
Aluminium is extracted using ELECTROLYSIS.
In electrolysis an electric current is used to reduce the aluminium when it is in molten bauxite (aluminium oxide)
Cryolite is added to lower the melting point of bauxite so it can be more easily melted.

62. Aluminium and electrolysis
Aluminium is formed at the negative electrode or cathode

63. Test your knowledge
What is the method used to extract aluminium called?
What substance is added to help make the aluminium ore (bauxite) molten?
Which electrode (positive or negative) does the aluminium form at?
Why is making aluminium expensive?

64. Why do we bother?
If electrolysis for aluminium and the extraction of titanium with magnesium are so expensive then why not just use steel?
Aluminium and titanium are valuable metals because of their properties.
Aluminium is light and does not rust
Titanium is hard and has a very high melting point.

66. Copper purification

68. Bioleaching Copper can also come from bioleaching
Bioleaching is the extraction of copper from its ore through the use of living organisms (bacteria).
This is much cleaner than the traditional leaching using cyanide or smelting as no greenhouse gases are produced from burning coal.

69. Phytomining
Phytomining involves using plants to extract the metal compounds present in copper rich soils.
Once the plants have been grown they are burned to produce ash that contains the metal compounds.
The metal can then be extracted using electrolysis.
This is cleaner and less polluting.

71. Transition metals
Transition metals are found in the middle section of the periodic table. Find this section on the periodic table in your planner and write down at least three examples of transition metals you have heard of. Two examples are gold, Au and iron, Fe. Some transition metals are very rare and very valuable.

72. Crude oil and hydrocarbons
Recall that crude oil is a mixture of a large number of compounds Define the term hydrocarbon Explain how the compounds in crude oil can be separated using physical methods including fractional distillation

73. Hydrocarbons
Most of the compounds in crude oil consist of molecules made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms only.
We call these HYDROCARBONS
We can separate the different unchanged hydrocarbons from crude oil by FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION.

75. Key points for exam questions
To explain fractional distillation [3 marks]
Heat crude oil to make it a gas/vapour
Cool to condense
Hydrocarbons condense at different temperatures (boiling points).

76. Different hydrocarbon – different BP
Different hydrocarbons have different numbers of carbon atoms.
The higher the number of carbon atoms the higher its boiling point.

77. Key points for exam questions
A fraction is a set of hydrocarbon molecules of similar size and similar boiling points
Different fractions have different uses.
Lighter fractions are more useful as fuels than heavier fractions.
The petrol fraction and diesel fraction are key fractions for the oil industry.

78. Products of fractional distillation
Recall that most of the compounds in crude oil consist of hydrocarbons called alkanes.
Describe the general formula of an alkane and draw the structure.
Explain the naming of alkanes up to a chain length of four carbon atoms.

79. Methane One carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms.
Each line represents a single covalent bond.

80. Two carbon atoms six hydrogen atoms
Ethane
Two carbon atoms six hydrogen atoms

81. CnH2n+2 Can you spot a pattern?
Every time we increase the number of carbons what happens to the number of hydrogens?
We can work out a general formula for any alkane it is:
CnH2n+2
where n is the number of carbon atoms
and 2n+2 is the number of hydrogen atoms

82. Alkanes and alkenes
recall the term alkane and the names for the first four alkanes in the series. State that these substances are commonly used as fuels. describe the difference between a saturated and an unsaturated hydrocarbon (an alkene) explain the boiling points, flammability and viscosity of hydrocarbon fuels.

83. Saturated and unsaturated
Ethane
Ethene
All single bonds
Full of hydrogen
Saturated
Has double bond
Fewer hydrogens
Unsaturated
Decolorises bromine water

84. Test for Alkenes
Bromine water is an orangey solution. It is orange because it contains bromine molecules (Br2)
When you add bromine water to an alkene it turns colourless.

85. Test your understanding

86. AfL – incomplete combustion

87. Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas.
This means it causes global warming by trapping heat from the sun within the Earth’s atmosphere.

88. Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide is an odourless and tasteless poisonous gas.
If produced in an enclosed space it can be deadly.

89. Soot/smoke particles
Particles of carbon from incomplete combustion can be released into the atmosphere.
This contributes to GLOBAL DIMMING

90. Other pollutants
Sulphur present in fuels burns to produce sulphur dioxide.
At high temperatures oxides of nitrogen may also be formed from nitrogen in the atmosphere.
These react with water in the atmosphere to form ACID RAIN

91. Biofuels Recall that biofuels are produced from plant material
Describe the fuels that can be produced from plant material
Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of making fuel from renewable sources.

92. Ethical and environmental issues
Clearance of rainforests to plant fuel crops
Using land formerly used for food crop (causing hardship)
Not replacing crops with sufficient crops after harvest for the process to remain carbon neutral
Erosion – replacing trees with crops with shallow roots

93. Carbon neutral – bioethanol, biodiesel and biomass
Plants photosynthesise using carbon (dioxide) from the air
Biodiesel/biothanol releases carbon (dioxide) from plants
Plants are replanted and photosynthesise, removing the carbon (dioxide) again.
By contrast
(fossil) diesel from crude oil releases ‘locked up’ carbon (dioxide) and doesn’t absorb any CO2

95. Different types of biofuels
Ethanol – produced by fermentation of sugars in sugarcane rather than from aalkanes.
Biodiesel – produced from hydrolysis of vegetable oils

96. Cracking and polymers
Recall how hydrocarbons can be cracked to make smaller more useful molecules.
Describe some of the properties of alkenes
Explain how alkenes can be used to synthesise polymers for a wide range of different applications.

97. Supply and demand – the options
Oil companies can make the fraction that is in demand more EXPENSIVE
Oil companies can lobby the Government to make changes to the system of TAXATION.
Oil companies can make more of the fraction that is in demand, for example by CRACKING.

98. Catalytic Cracking
The larger fractions from crude oil can be of limited value as fuels or as chemical feedstock.
To make these more useful and therefore more valuable they are split into smaller molecules using a process called CRACKING.

99. Heat the hydrocarbons to vaporise Pass over a hot catalyst OR
Heat to high temperature with steam
Decomposition then occurs
Shorter alkenes and alkanes formed

100. Uses of polymers and recyling
Recall the many different uses and applications of polymers
Describe how a polymer is made from monomers and how to draw monomers and polymers
Explain the problems that are caused by polymers that are not biodegradeable.

101. Polymerisation
In polymerisation many small molecules MONOMERS join together to form a larger molecule POLYMER sometimes containing many thousands of monomers.

102. Polymerisation

103. Drawing monomers and polymers

104. Plant oils, healthy and unhealthy fats
Recall that oils can be obtained from plants
Describe the properties of oils and formation of emulsions
Explain why saturated fats are solid and unsaturated fats are liquids

108. What do we use emulsions for?
Emulsions are good for coating surfaces eg paint and cosmetics.
They have an appealing texture in food eg ice cream and mayonnaise

109. Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers keep the product in an emulsion and stop it separating out
Emulsifiers are molecules that have one part that is attracted to water and one that is attracted to oil.
An example is washing up liquid.

111. Unsaturated oils
Unsaturated fats like olive oil have double bonds and decolorise bromine water.
When making margarine hydrogen is passed through the oil in the presence of a nickel catalyst at 60°C
This fills up the molecule with hydrogen making it a solid fat.

112. Plate tectonics and continental drift
Recall the composition of the Earth and movement of tectonic plates
Describe how Wegener’s theory of continental drift was not generally accepted for many years
Explain how sudden movement of the plates can give rise to earthquakes and volcanoes.

113. Tectonic plate movement.
Convection currents within the Earth’s mantle driven by heat released by natural radioactive processes cause the plates to move.
The plates move at relative speeds of a few cm a year.

116. Earthquakes and volcanoes
Movements of the plates can be sudden and disastrous. Earthquakes occur at the boundaries between tectonic plates when plates move suddenly. Volcanoes are caused by convection currents in the mantle caused by heat released from natural radioactive processes.

117. Predicting earthquakes and eruptions
Making predictions could save 1000’s of lives. However, this is hard to do because scientists do not know (with any certainty):
what happens under the crust
where the forces / pressure are building up
the size of the forces
when the forces reach their limit

118. The atmosphere and the origins of life
Recall the current composition of gases in the Earth’s atmosphere
Describe how the atmosphere has evolved and its relationship with the start of life on Earth
Explain some of the theories on the origins of life.

119. Origins of the atmosphere
During the first billion years of the Earth’s existence there was intense volcanic activity This activity released the gas that formed the early atmosphere and water vapour that condensed to form the oceans. The oceans and calcium carbonate rocks (limestone) are responsible for locking in carbon dioxide.

120. Miller – Urey experiment
This experiment carried out in the 1950s demonstrated the potential to create the building blocks of life in the laboratory.
Amino acids were creates from ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide and water.
This is a contentious theory and just one of many possibilities including deep sea vents, meteors, comets and glaciers.