1. Workforce Planning: Aging and Employment Module 7: Motivation and Performance: Assessment, Relationships and Training Barbara McIntosh, Ph.D., SPHR •
The development of this content was made possible through the support from a grant from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.

2. Module 7: Overview
This module addresses three areas for managing productivity:
Performance assessment.
Managing relationships: the emerging multigenerational workforce.
Training and retraining.
This is the overview slide for Module 7.

3. Productivity Assessment: Expectations/Reality
Is the aging workforce less productive?
Evidence (current population survey data):
There has been a steady improvement in the earnings of older workers.
Today’s older adults are unusually well educated.
More productive workers stay in the workforce longer than less productive workers (earnings and education partially explain this).
Workers ages are more productive than average of younger workers (using standard measure of worker productivity—hourly wages).
Pay premium is currently between 10 and 20 percent of the average wage earned by younger workers.
“There is little evidence that the aging workforce has hurt productivity” (Burtless, 2013).
Source: Burtless, G. (2013). The impact of population aging and delayed retirement on workforce productivity. Chestnut Hill, MA: Center for Retirement Research at Boston College.
The key point on this slide is that the aging workforce has not hurt productivity.

4. Assessing Individual Productivity
Formal assessment = performance appraisal.
Informal assessment = continuous feedback.
Factors contributing to change in job/person fit:
Organization-based:
Evolving organizational/job design—expanding demands and responsibilities.
Changing technologies.
Interpersonal relationship-based (team dynamics).
Individual-based:
Health.
Changes in work/leisure mix preferences.
Perceived changes in superior/co-worker relations.
Multiple factors influence an individual’s productivity.
First, have students discuss how productivity is assessed:
Annual performance appraisals when detailed information is formally reviewed.
Continuous review of contributions and commitment.
If there is a drop in productivity, identify the cause:
Organization practices?
Interpersonal (co-worker) relationships?
Individual factors?
The following three slides should be used to develop discussion about remedies in each area.

5. Productivity Change: Organization-Based Reasons
Possible reasons:
Changing job design and expectations.
Expanding demands and responsibilities.
Changing technologies.
Possible remedies:
Include employees in organization change efforts.
Jointly redefine job description.
Shift to different job/department.
Discuss abilities and work/life balance.
Train/retrain in new technologies.
Ask students to add to the list at the top.
Animate this slide and have students discuss possible remedies before showing these examples.

6. Productivity and Interpersonal Relationships
Co-worker relationships:
Valued by older workers.
Trust.
Teamwork:
Shared understanding.
Ability to communicate and be heard.
Mutual respect.
Experience, maturity and emotional intelligence.
Possible remedies:
Collaborative new staff orientation programs.
Team development interventions and exercises.
Multigenerational training.
Changes in staffing can result in multiple misunderstandings and frustration.
Co-worker relations is one of the top reasons aging employees keep working.
Again, have students develop the list of possible remedies to rebuild the culture.
Use this point to highlight the next series of slides that focus on the multigenerational workforce.

7. Multigenerational Workforce Drivers
Labor shortages (not surplus).
Knowledge-based work (not physical labor).
Team dynamics (not hierarchy).
Technology.
Globalization.
This slide should be related back to Modules 1 and 2 and the changing nature of the workforce.
Instructor reading
It is recommended that the instructor read the following:
Pew Research Center. (March 2014). Millennials in adulthood: Detached from institutions, networked with friends. Retrieved from
This report outlines generational differences in political trends, opinions about current issues, finances, social trends and technology.

8. What Do We Know About Multigenerational Interactions?
Interaction research literature:
Family-based.
Parenting.
Grand-parenting.
Relationship-based.
Supervising and counseling children, young adults.
Teaching (expert).
Mentoring (sharing).
Work-based.
Reporting structures.
Nonpersonal goals and expectations.
This is the second area for possible programmatic review and action by HR practitioners.
Little research has been conducted on intergenerational activities in the workplace. The first two points show that most research has taken place in the context of family or teaching.
In the work context, researchers have focused on supervisory relationships but not the effect of age differences (e.g., young managers supervising fathers or grandmothers). Indeed, there has been a practice of keeping work nonpersonal and goal-focused. The effect of age differences needs to be assessed openly.

9. Stereotyping: A Caveat
Stereotyping is the process of assigning traits to people based on their membership in a social category.
There is wider variation within cohorts than among cohorts.
Generalizations, however, offer insight, awareness and empathy.
Stereotyping is important because of social cognition. The way we think about others is significant in how we see ourselves and our roles.
Stereotyping occurs because:
We need to understand and anticipate the behavior of others.
Stereotyping is a shortcut that allows us to fill in missing information.
Problems with stereotyping
It can be unconscious.
It can be difficult to prevent the activation of stereotypes.
It does not accurately describe all the people in a social category.
It causes us to ignore or misinterpret information that is inconsistent with the stereotype.
It can result in unintentional discrimination when we have preconceived ideas about ideal persons for particular roles in an organization.
For additional reading in this area see: Lancaster, L., & Stillman, D. (2002). When generations collide. New York, NY: HarperBusiness.

10. Cohort Characteristics: All Valued, All Needed
Veterans ( )
Outlook: practical.
Work ethic: dedicated.
View of authority: respectful.
Leadership by hierarchy.
Relationships: personal sacrifice.
Perspective: civic.
Baby Boomers ( )
Outlook: optimistic.
Work ethic: driven.
View of authority: love/hate.
Leadership by consensus.
Relationships: personal gratification.
Perspective: team.
Source: Raines, C. (2003). Connecting generations. Menlo Park, CA.: Crisp Publications.
It is important to emphasize that this discussion will, in part, reflect and reinforce stereotyping. There is, in fact, more variation within cohorts than among cohorts, but behaviors do reflect the experiences/context in which a particular cohort was raised.

11. Cohort Characteristics: All Valued, All Needed (continued)
Generation X ( )
Outlook: skeptical.
Work ethic: balanced.
View of authority: unimpressed.
Leadership by competence.
Relationships: reluctant to commit.
Perspective: self.
Generation Y/Millennial (1986- )
Outlook: hopeful.
Work ethic: ambitious.
View of authority: relaxed, polite.
Leadership by achievers.
Relationships: loyal.
Perspective: civic.
Source: Raines, C. (2003). Connecting generations. Menlo Park, CA.: Crisp Publications. .
Most of the students will probably be younger. Do they agree with these descriptors? Do the descriptors fit for their parents and grandparents?

12. Messages that Shaped Them
Veterans ( )
Make do or do without.
Stay in line.
Sacrifice.
Be heroic.
Consider the common good.
Baby Boomers ( )
Be anything you want to be.
Change the world.
Work well with others.
Live up to expectations.
Duck and cover.
It is important to describe the historical context. Below are a few key markers.
Veterans
Depression.
World wars.
High poverty levels.
Limited opportunities.
Interrupted youth.
Baby Boomers
Post-war affluence and opportunity.
U.S. a world leader.
Space race.
Emphasis and access to education.
Assassinations.

13. Messages that Shaped Them (continued)
Generation X ( )
Don’t count on it.
Being a hero does not count
Get real.
Survive—staying alive.
Ask why.
Generation Y/Millennial (1986- )
Be smart—you are special.
Leave no one behind.
Connect 24/7.
Achieve now.
Serve your community.
Source: Raines, C. (2003). Connecting generations. Menlo Park, CA.: Crisp Publications.
Have students add their own markers for these generations.

14. Social Identity Theory
How we see ourselves as unique individuals defines, in part, our identity.
Identity also comes from membership in different social groups (our social identity).
For example: “I am a mother, wife and teacher. My family lives in California, and I am a skier.”
Each of these groups carries different connotations.
Have students discuss how social identity theory might affect older workers’ labor force participation.
Older workers are supposed to retire.
For workers ages 65 and older, the majority of their peers will be retired.
To what extent is this role changing? What are students’ grandparents or parents doing?
Features of social identity:
Categorization processes: We categorize people into distinct groups and infer traits that are protypical of that group.
Homogenization processes: We exaggerate similarities among people in other groups, assuming, for example, that they have the same attitudes and values.
Differentiation processes: We see people in our own groups as more distinct and unique.

15. Multigenerational Workforce: Management Implications
Manage organization culture:
Respect all forms of diversity.
Value others people’s contributions to the team.
Show sensitivity to other perspectives.
Be open to change.
Monitor policies and practices regarding the treatment of others.
Ensure top management is vocal in its support.
Organizational culture is the basic pattern of shared assumptions, values and beliefs considered to be the correct way of thinking about and acting on problems and opportunities facing an organization (McShane and Von Glinow, 2007).
Source: McShane, Steven, L. & Von Glinow, Mary Ann (2007) Organizational Behavior: Essentials. McGraw-Hill/Irwin (ISBN ).  
Exercise
Have students discuss how an organization’s culture can be changed to be more accepting of multiple generations.
Factors to consider
Physical structure.
Language.
Rituals and ceremonies.
Stories and legends.
Leadership behaviors.

16. Generational Awareness
Complete an audit.
Conduct training: Develop a value proposition for each generation.
Review policies and practices in terms of preferences.
Ensure transparency.
Review makeup of the board of directors.
Before HR can address multigenerational issues, it must complete an audit by department regarding age distribution, satisfaction levels, perceptions of respect, communication patterns, etc.
If it is determined that a better awareness of the strengths each generation brings to the workplace is appropriate, training can be designed for this purpose.
HR policies and practices can be reviewed to identify cohorts that take advantage of some opportunities and not others.
Finally, observations and concerns need to be brought to the top so there is alignment throughout the organization. The board of directors should also be brought into the review. Does the composition of the board reflect the workforce?

17. Six Principles for Mixing Generations (C. Raines)
Initiate conversations about generations.
Ask people about their needs and preferences.
Offer options.
Personalize your style.
Build on strengths.
Pursue different perspectives.
Source: Raines, C., (2003). Connecting generations: The sourcebook for a new workplace. Menlo Park, CA: Crisp Publications.
The next six slides can be reviewed as suggestions for mixing the generations.
Exercise
Ask students to comment on their perceptions of these recommendations.

18. Generations Friendly?
There is not just one type of person who is successful here.
We form teams to consciously involve multiple perspectives.
Employees are treated as customers.
We talk about different viewpoints.
Does the organization send these messages?
Are these messages important?
Are there other ways to reinforce respect between generations?

19. Generations Friendly? (continued)
We talk openly about what we want from our jobs.
We have a minimum of bureaucracy.
Our work atmosphere is relaxed and informal.
We have a lot of fun together.
We are known for being straightforward with each other.
This slide is a continuation of the ways to integrate generations.
Are these the messages that are sent in your organization?

20. Generations Friendly? (continued)
We expect the best from everyone. We treat them as if they have great things to offer and are motivated to do their best.
We focus on retention every day.
Our work assignments are broad, provide variety, and challenge and allow each employee to develop a range of skills.
Adapted from Zemke, R., Raines, C., & Filipczak, B. (2000). Generations at work: Managing the clash of veterans, Boomers, Xers and Nexters in your workplace. New York, NY: Amacom.
Are these the messages that are sent in your organization?

21. Assessing Individual Productivity
Factors contributing to change in job/person fit:
Organization-based:
Evolving organization/job design—expanding demands and responsibilities.
Changing technologies.
Interpersonal relationship-based (team dynamics).
Individual-based:
Health.
Changes in work/leisure mix preferences.
Access to new challenges, training and development.
This slide is a slightly modified version of Slide 4. This is to help recap.
Multiple factors influence an individual’s productivity. Remedies are suggested on the next slide.

22. Individual Productivity
Individual-based:
Health.
Changes in work/leisure mix preferences.
Access to new challenges.
Training/retraining.
Development opportunities.
It is important to remind students that there are changes in employees’ productivity throughout their careers related to changes in the physical, psychological and social factors that shape work behaviors. In other words, this discussion can be applied to all workers, not just to aging workers.
The most recent meta-analysis investigating the relationship between employee age and job performance found that there are mixed results depending on the definition and measure of job performance (Ng and Feldman, 2008).
Source: Ng, T., & Feldman, D. (2008). The relationship of age to ten dimensions of job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93,
Health may be a contributor to reduced productivity. Health will be discussed in more detail in Module 8, but it is important to note here that accommodations, including job change, should be explored.
Individuals may also be interested in reducing the number of hours worked or having more flexibility in the workplace, e.g., telecommuting. Flexibility will be discussed in detail in Module 9.
Productivity may be maintained or increased by keeping aging workers challenged in their jobs. New roles can be developed (see mentoring in Module 9), or employees may have the opportunity to do something new through an internal transfer in the organization. Training, retraining and development programs should also be used to increase productivity.
This slide and the next should be used to transition into the slides on training.

23. Attitudes → Productivity → Training
Is there a culture of respect, support and cooperation across generations?
Are individuals—regardless of age—held accountable (meaningful performance appraisals)?
Do stereotypes unintentionally create barriers for older workers’ training and development?
Do older workers fail to take advantage of training and development opportunities because of social cognition and social identity?
Attitudes underpin productivity in an organization, and HR professionals need to ask the questions listed on the slide.
Training and counseling clearly are advised if the answer is “no” to questions 1 and 2 and if the answer is “yes” to questions 3 and 4.

24. Productivity: Training and Development
Upgrading and developing new skills is essential in all organizations. Training is a necessity, not a luxury.
Older workers are not poor investments for training. Employers cannot make assumptions about retention and return on investment (ROI).
Older workers provide value in institutional knowledge that employers frequently fail to consider when thinking only about external costs.
“New challenges” is a primary determinant of employees’ intention to stay in an organization. The opportunity for new challenges is a retention tool.
Training is particularly important in the context of demographics, technology, globalization and the accelerating rate of change.
Younger workers are more likely to leave for career and family reasons. Older workers tend to be more settled in their jobs and work longer.
An excellent report in this area is the following (available online):
Charness, N., & Czaja, S. (2006). Older worker training: What we know and don’t know. Washington, DC: AARP.
Also see:
Beier, M., Teachout, M., & Cox, C. (2012). The training development of an aging workforce. In J. W. Hedge & W. C. Borman (Eds.), Oxford handbook of work and aging. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Side note: Findings cited in the Beier et al. (2012) chapter suggest:
There is greater variability in older cohorts than in younger cohorts.
Cognitive ability is the most consistent and important predictor of training success, but it is not one-dimensional.
Abilities associated with learning new information (e.g., reasoning ability, working memory capacity and other so-called fluid abilities) decrease with age (Carroll, 1993). This is very important when information is novel and the learning environment requires simultaneous processing and retention (Kane & Engle, 2000; Beier, 2012).
Crystalized ability (mental ability that develops through education and experience) remains stable or increases—helps workers compensate for losses in fluid abilities when the learning remains in the same domain.
Sources: Carroll, J. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Kane, M., & Engle, R. (2000). Working memory capacity, proactive interference, and divided attention: Limits on long term memory retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 26,

25. Motivation Drives Training
Source: Pitt-Catsouphes, M., Smyer, M., Matz-Costa, C., & Kane, K. (2007). The national study report (Research Highlight No. 4). Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College Center on Aging and Work/Workplace Flexibility.

26. Purpose and Outcome of Training
Clarify the reason for training.
Remedial?
Refresher?
New skills?
Set goals.
Organization’s objectives?
Value of performance increases compared with the cost of training.
Contribution to performance?
Measuring outcomes?
See: Lonergan, F. (2013). Making sense out of hiring and training older workers. American Management Association. Retrieved from
Lonergan argues for asking the questions under goals/assessment.
Imel, S. (1991). Older worker training: An overview (ERIC Digest No. 114). Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Career and Vocational Education.
“Although few companies have systematically analyzed the costs and benefits of training older workers, the limited research suggests that any added costs of training older workers may be offset by savings elsewhere (Rix, 1990). For example, because older workers at the Days Inn Corporation stayed on the job longer than younger workers (three years as compared to one year), the return on investment in their training was actually greater than that of younger workers. They were also better sales people than younger workers, generating additional revenue by booking more reservations (Commonwealth Fund 1991).”
Commonwealth Fund. (1991, May). Case studies at major corporations. New York, NY: Commonwealth Fund.
Rix, S. E. (1990). Older workers. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

27. Types of Training Provided in 2011
Source: Perron, D. (2011). Employer experiences and expectations: Finding, training and keeping qualified workers. AARP Foundation. Retrieved from

28. Training: Changing Focus
Source: Perron, D. (2011). Employer experiences and expectations: Finding, training and keeping qualified workers. AARP Foundation. Retrieved from

29. Employers’ Perception of Selected Attributes by Career Stage
Source: Pitt-Catsouphes, M., Smyer, M., Matz-Costa, C., & Kane, K. (2007). The national study report (Research Highlight No. 4). Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College Center on Aging and Work/Workplace Flexibility.

30. Learning/Training Differences
Well-learned procedures are maintained into old age, and there is little evidence to suggest that older workers are less productive than younger workers (Charness & Czaja, 2006; Czaja, 2001; Fisk et al., 2004).
Acquiring new skills: Older adults take longer to complete training and demonstrated less mastery of the training material (Kubeck, 1996).
To the extent that older workers are going to be successful:
Trainee must be motivated to learn.
Trainee must be able to learn (aptitude).
Learning must be reinforced.
Training must include practice of the material.
Material must be meaningful.
Material must be communicated effectively.
Material must transfer to the job.
Sources:
Charness, N. (2006) Older worker training: What we know and don’t know. Washington DC: AARP Public Policy Institute, October.
Czaja, S. J. (2001) Technological change and the older worker. In J. E. Birren and K. W. Schaie (eds.) Handbook of psychology of aging. 5th edition. pp San Diego: Academic Press.
Fisk, A. D., Rogers, W. A., Charness, N., Czaja, S. J., and Sharit, J. (2004). Designing for older adults: Principles and creative human factors approaches. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
Kubeck, J. E., Delp, N. D., Haslett, T. K., and McDaniel, M. A. (1996). Does job-related training performance decline with age? Psychology and Aging, 11,

31. Learning/Training Differences (continued)
Older adults take longer to perform new tasks.
Older adults require more help and hands-on practice.
Training techniques do not vary much with age in large meta-analysis.
Bottom line: Not enough research has been done in this area.
Taking longer? This may be attributable to older adults’ change in cognitive abilities fluid versus crystalized knowledge discussed in the notes on Slide 24. It may also reflect a preference for accuracy over speed, with the reverse holding true for younger adults (Charness and Czaja, 2006).
Help? This suggests using age-appropriate training techniques, but is what is best for the young best for the old (Charness and Czaja, 2006)?
Techniques?
Lecture, modeling and active participation (discovery learning) were all effective.
Materials: Only self-pacing and group size (smaller is better) were better for older learners.
Sources:
Callahan, J., Kiker, D., & Cross, T. (2003). Does method matter? A meta-analysis of the effects of training method on older learner training performance. Journal of Management, 29,
Charness, N., & Czaja, S. (2006). Older worker training: What we know and don’t know. Washington, DC: AARP.

32. Limited Access?
The number of hours of employer-sponsored training received declines with age, with employees older than age 55 participating in nine hours of training per year, in contrast to 37 hours per year for employees ages 25 to 34 (USDOL, 2008). Other research has found that employers are more likely to provide training and cross-training for younger workers than for later-career employees, which may reflect employer age biases (Dobbs, Healey, Kane, Mak, & McNamara, 2007).
See: Heidkamp, M. (2012). Older workers, rising skill requirements and the need for a re-envisioning of the public workforce system (The Tapping Mature Talent Paper Series). Council for Adult and Experiential Learning. Retrieved from
Sources: Dobbs, J., Healey, P., Kane, K., Mak, D., & McNamara, T. (2007, February). Age bias and employment discrimination (Fact sheet 2007). Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College Center on Aging and Work/Workplace Flexibility.
U.S. Department of Labor. (2008, February). Report of the taskforce on the aging of the American workforce. Retrieved from

33. Employer Investment Considerations
Investing in training older workers:
Con: Older workers may be close to retirement, reducing the return on investment.
Pro: A key way to retain an aging worker is to provide growth and challenge.
Other investment considerations that support additional training:
Experiential capital.
Social capital: professional and client/customer networks.
There is also a business case for investing in training based on cost-cutting. For example:
American Airlines acknowledges some monetary advantages in its plan to recruit individuals in the 40- to 65-year-old age range to be trained as flight attendants because a 55-year-old will not accrue as much in pension benefits as a 22-year-old recruit, who spends 40 years with the company. In addition, older recruits will not be compensated for any previous related experience but will receive the same salary and expense package as all first-year attendants. See Older attendants take off at airline. (1991, August 5). Columbus Dispatch, 1-2E.
Experiential capital: See Delong D. (2004). Lost knowledge: The threat of an aging workforce. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Delong argues that the institutional knowledge possessed by longer tenured, more experienced employees can contribute to problem-solving that results in significant cost savings for an organization.

34. Savvy Employers Include Training in Bridging the Knowledge and Experience Gap
Source: Perron, R. (2011). Employer experiences and expectations: Finding, training and keeping qualified workers. AARP Foundation. Retrieved from

35. Managing Productivity Summary
This module addressed three areas for managing productivity:
Performance assessment.
Managing relationships: The emerging
multigenerational workforce.
3. Training and retraining.
Each area offers multiple opportunities for HR to address older worker issues.