1. Sociology in Modules
Richard T. Schaefer

2. Government, Power, and Authority
One cultural universal is the exercise of power and authority
Politics: “who gets what, when, and how” (Lasswell)

3. Government, Power, and Authority
Political and economic systems intertwined
Political system: unique to each country; founded on a recognized set of procedures
Economic system: social institution through which goods and services, are produced, distributed, and consumed

4. Power Power: ability to exercise one’s will over others (Weber)
Sources of power in political systems:
Force: actual or threatened use of coercion to impose one’s will on others
Influence: exercise of power through process of persuasion
Authority: institutionalized power recognized by the people over whom it is exercised

5. Types of Authority Three ideal types of authority (Weber)
Traditional authority: legitimate power conferred by custom and accepted practice
Rational-legal authority: power made legitimate by law
Charismatic authority: power made legitimate by leader’s exceptional personal or emotional appeal to his or her followers 5

6. Types of Government Monarchy Oligarchy
Form of government headed by a single member of a royal family
Oligarchy
Form of government in which a few individuals rule

7. Types of Government Dictatorship and Totalitarianism
Dictatorship: government in which one person has nearly total power to make and enforce laws
Totalitarianism: involves virtually complete government control and surveillance over all aspects of a society’s social and political life

8. Types of Government Democracy Government by the people
Representative democracy: certain individuals elected to speak for the people
U.S. is representative democracy
Critics question whether U.S. democracy is truly representative

9. War and Peace
War: conflict between organizations that possess trained combat forces equipped with deadly weapons (Caplow and Hicks)
Legal definition typically requires formal declaration of hostilities

10. War Three sociological approaches:
Global view studies how and why nations become engaged in military conflict
Nation-state view stresses interaction of internal political, socioeconomic, and cultural forces
Micro view focuses on social impact on individuals and their groups

11. Peace
Peace: absence of war, and proactive effort to develop cooperative relations among nations
Since 1990s, 90% of armed conflicts occurred within states
Global Peace Index: U.S. ranked 99 on list of 162 nations
Nations cannot maintain security through threatening violence

12. Figure 48-1: Global Peace Index

13. Terrorism
Terrorism: use or threat of violence against random or symbolic targets in pursuit of political aims
Hope to intimidate society and bring about a new political order
Essential aspect of contemporary terrorism involves use of the media
Governments becoming concerned about malicious cyberattacks

14. Political Behavior and Power in the United States
Many aspects of political system taken for granted by U.S. citizens
Bill of Rights
Two major political parties
Secret ballot
Elected president
Distinct state and local governments
Different expectations in other nations

15. Participation and Apathy
In U.S., only small minority of citizens, often from higher social classes, participate in political organizations on local or national level
In 2012 election, voter turnout only 61.8% of eligible voters
Political participation makes government accountable to voters

16. Figure 49-1: Voter Turnout Worldwide

17. Race and Gender in Politics
In U.S., political strength lacking in such marginalized groups as women and racial and ethnic minorities
Progress toward inclusion of minority groups in government has been slow
Female politicians enjoying more electoral success, but evidence that media cover them differently

18. Figure 49-2: Women in National Legislatures, Selected Countries

19. Models of Power Structure in the United States
Who really holds power in the U.S.? Two basic views:
Power elite model
Pluralist model

20. Power Elite Models
Elite model: society ruled by small group of individuals who share common set of political and economic interests
Mills’s Model
Power elite: small ruling elite of military, industrial, and governmental leaders
Power elite includes relatively few members and operates as a self-conscious, cohesive unit
Current research on global power elite ongoing

21. Power Elite Models Domhoff’s Model
Stresses roles played by elites of corporate community and leaders of policy-formation organizations
In electoral arena, two coalitions:
Corporate-conservative coalition
Liberal-labor coalition

22. Figure 49-3: Power Elite Models

23. Pluralist Model
Pluralist model: competing groups within community have access to government, so no single group can dominate
Variety of groups play significant roles in decisions
Fails to address potential power of elites to keep matters out of government debate
Acknowledges uneven distribution of power in United States

24. Economic Systems
Industrial society: society that depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services
Capitalism
Socialism

25. Capitalism
Capitalism: economic system in which means of production are held largely in private hands
Main incentive for economic activity is accumulation of profits
Laissez-faire: businesses compete with minimal government intervention
Monopoly: exists when a single firm controls the market
Monopolies tolerated in contemporary capitalism

26. Figure 50-1: World’s Largest Economies26

27. Socialism
Socialism: means of production and distribution owned collectively rather than privately owned
Wide variation in toleration of private ownership
Communism: economic system under which all property is communally owned and no social distinctions are made on the basis of people’s ability to produce

28. The Informal Economy
Informal economy: transfer of money, goods, or services is not reported to the government
Difficult to measure
In developing nations, informal economy represents 40–60% of economic activity and often is unmeasured

29. Table 50-1: Characteristics of the Three Major Economic Systems29

30. Changing Economies
Advocates of power elite model: trend in capitalist societies toward concentration of ownership by giant corporations
Especially multinational corporations
Four outgrowths of this trend:
Changing workforce
Deindustrialization
Temporary workforce
Offshoring

31. The Changing Face of the Workforce
U.S. workforce constantly changing
Sociologists and labor specialists foresee workforce increasingly composed of women and racial and ethnic minorities
From 1988 to 2018, 52% of new workers expected to be women
More diverse workforce means relationships between workers more likely to cross gender, racial, and ethnic lines 31

32. Deindustrialization
Deindustrialization: systematic, widespread withdrawal of investment in basic aspects of productivity
Can take the form of corporate restructuring
Downsizing: reductions in a company’s workforce as part of deindustrialization
Social costs cannot be overemphasized 32

33. The Temporary Workforce
Increasing reliance on part-time workforce
Workers are temporary or seasonal; and lack benefits
Some workers seek out part-time jobs
Increase in precarious work: employment that is poorly paid, and from the worker’s perspective insecure and unprotected 33

34. Figure 51-1: Temporary Workforce in Six Countries, by Gender

35. Offshoring Offshoring: transferring work to foreign contractors
Latest tactic in raising profits by reducing costs
Conflict theorists: this aspect of globalization furthers social inequality
Not inevitable; some reshoring occurs 35

36. Table 51-1: Occupations Most Vulnerable to Offshoring

37. Social Policy and the Economy: Microfinancing
Looking at the Issue
Microfinancing: lending small sums of money to poor so they can work their way out of poverty
Developed by Muhammad Yunus in Bangladesh
Idea has been underwritten by over a thousand for-profit banks and multinational organizations
Some lenders are taking advantage of the poor 37

38. Social Policy and the Economy: Microfinancing
Applying Sociology
Poor people can significantly improve their circumstances through mutual support (Collins)
Women comprise 90% of microcredit recipients
Women’s economic status critical to well-being of children and a healthy household environment
Critics: creation of small home-based industries reduces demand for formal employment opportunities 38

39. Social Policy and the Economy: Microfinancing
Initiating Policy
Need to reduce overlending and monitor success of small loans in helping borrowers escape poverty
Lenders need to work with political leaders to ensure they do not regard one another as competitors for political support from the poor
Development of this type of government policy a major undertaking 39

40. Sociology in the Global Community
48-1: Sovereignty in the Aloha State
From a mainstream point of view, what might be the advantages and disadvantages of extending sovereignty to an indigenous group? Discuss using sociological concepts.
Do some research on the legal basis for tribal sovereignty. How did American Indian tribes gain the status of separate nations?

41. Research Today 49-1: Why Don’t More Young People Vote?
How often do you vote? If you do not vote, what accounts for your apathy? Are you too busy to register? Are community issues uninteresting to you?
Do you think voter apathy is a serious social problem? What might be done to increase voter participation in your age group and community?

42. Our Wired World 49-2: Politicking Online
Do you use the Internet or social media for political purposes? If so, do those in your social network affect your political views or participation?
What might be some drawbacks of online political activity?

43. Research Today 51-1: Affirmative Action
Is affirmative action part of the admissions policy at the college or university you attend? If so, do you think the policy has helped to level the playing field? Might it have excluded some qualified White applicants?
Take a poll of your classmates. What percentage of the class supports affirmative action in hiring and college admissions? How does that group break down in terms of gender, race, and ethnicity?

44. Taking Sociology to Work
Joseph W. Drummond, Management Analyst, U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command
Have you ever considered a career in national defense? Do you know anyone with a college degree who works in the field?
Why do you think quantitative analysis is such an important skill to employers? How might you use it in your career?