1. Chapter Four From Word to Text

2. 句法学研究组词成句的规则，研究句子内部组成成分间的关系。
Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
句法学研究组词成句的规则，研究句子内部组成成分间的关系。

3. Syntactic relations （句法关系）
Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds:
relations of position
relations of substitutability relations of co-occurrence

4. 1.1 Relations of Position （位置关系）
For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.
The boy kicked the ball
NP NP2
Subject Object

5. Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.
If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.
For example,

6. The teacher saw the students The students saw the teacher
The boy kicked the ball
*Boy the ball kicked the
*The ball kicked the boy
The teacher saw the students
The students saw the teacher

7. Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations（横组合关系） observed by F. de Saussure.
They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.

8. Word order is one of the basic ways to classify languages in the world:
SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.
English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.

9. 1.2 Relation of Substitutability （替换关系）
The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.
The ______ smiles. 
man
boy
girl

10. It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.
strong man
The tallest boy smiles.
pretty girl
yesterday.
He went there last week.
the day before.

11. This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations（纵聚合关系）by Hjemslev（叶尔姆斯列夫）
To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.

12. 1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence （同现关系/纵横关系）
It means that words of different sets of classes may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.
For instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase.

13. Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.

14. 2. Grammatical construction and its constituents
GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION （语法结构体）or CONSTRUCT can be used to refer to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.

15. On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and its internal properties.
The external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.
For instance, the different terms such as clausal type, phrasal type are assigned to the properties of the constructions respectively.

16. The internal syntax of a construction
is really a description of the construction’s “make-up”, with the terms such as “subject, predicate, object, determiner, noun”.
Subject          +
Verb                    +
Object (clausal type)
Mary (subject)
ate (verb)
an apple (object).
Determiner    +
Noun (phrasal type)
this (determiner)
edition (noun)
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17. In the context of discourse/text analysis, construction refers to a token of a constructional type.
The sentence The girl is giggling is recognised as “Subject + Predicate” type, but it is realized in a string The + girl + is + giggling.  
It is the construction in this sense that can be analysed into constituents.
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18. 2.2 Immediate Constituents (直接成分)
Constituent（成分）is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:
the girl (NP)
ate the apple (VP)
the girl ate the apple (S)

19. Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units.
If two constituents, in the case of the example above, B (the girl) and C (ate the apple), are joined to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (“S” , here a sentence ), then B and C are said to be immediate constituents of A.
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20. A (Sentence)
B C
The girl ate the apple
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21. This tree contains three Nodes.
The top-most node, A, is the mother of the two lower nodes, B and C.
B and C are daughters of the same mother, and so we refer to them as sister nodes.
The simple tree in the above represents a constituent of category A which is composed of two parts, one of category B and the other of category C, occurring in that order.
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22. To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法)，the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached
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23. When a tree diagram is used to represent the constituent structure of a grammatical unit (e.g. a phrase or sentence), syntactic categories are used to label the nodes; the most common of these are listed in the following:
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24. Word-level Phrasal N= noun A=adjective V=verb P=preposition
Det=determiner
Adv=adverb
Conj=conjunction
NP=noun phrase
AP=adjective phrase
VP=verb phrase
PP=preposition phrase
S=sentence or clause
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25. Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)
The girl ate the apple

26. Tree diagram S NP VP Det N V NP Det N The girl ate the apple
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27. Bracketing
In contrast to tree diagram, BRACKETING is not so common, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent structure of a grammatical unit.
(((The) (girl))  ((ate)  ((the)  (apple))))
[[[The] [girl]]  [[ate]  [[the]  [apple]]]]
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28. Advantages of IC Analysis
To demonstrate the internal structure of a sentence clearly
To reveal the ambiguities
Leave the book on the shelf.

29. Leave the book on the shelf

30. 2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions (向心结构和离心结构)
The syntactic constructions analysed are of two main types: endocentric and exocentric constructions, depending on their distribution and the relation between their constituents.

31. ENDOCENTRIC construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD.其整体功能与其某个或某些组成成分（单个词或词组）相同或相似，这个词组是整体的核心或中心。因此向心结构也叫做中心结构 。
Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases (the three small children), verb phrases(will have been leaving), adjective phrases (really very late).
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33. The head is not necessarily the last constituent
The head is not necessarily the last constituent. It may occur at the beginning.
the book on the shelf
the man about whom I’ve been talking
walked away immediately
hot beyond endurance
afraid of the talk

34. EXOCENTRIC construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including
the basic sentence,
the prepositional phrase,
the predicate (verb + object) construction, and
the connective (be + complement) construction.

35. The boy smiled. (Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.)
He hid behind the door. (Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)
He kicked the ball. (Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)
John seemed angry. (After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)

36. 朱德熙在《语法答问》中指出：
布龙姆菲尔德（L.Bloomfield）把句法结构分成两类：至少有一个直接成分跟整体的语法功能相同的结构叫“向心结构”。向心结构里跟整体的功能相同的直接成分是这个向心结构的核心（head）。所有的直接成分都跟整体的语法功能不同的结构叫离心结构。（L.Bloomfield，Language， 页）例如偏正结构（包括定语加中心语的名词性偏正结构和状语加中心语的谓词性偏正结构）的语法功能跟它的后一个直接成分（中心语）相同，述宾结构和述补结构的语法功能都跟它的前一个直接成分（述语）相同，所以都是向心结构。主谓结构的语法功能跟它的两个直接成分（主语和谓语）都不一样，所以是离心结构。所有由虚词组成的句法结构如介词结构，“的”字结构等等也都是离心结构。联合结构的语法功能跟它的每一项组成成分都相同，是一种多核心的向心结构，布龙姆菲尔德管它叫并列式向心结构（co-ordinative endocentric construction）。

37. 布氏向心/离心结构理论的一些问题： 1 布氏的理论本身并不是完美无缺的。这一点布氏本人已经有所认识。并非所有的向心结构其整体功能都与中心语或核心完全一致，因此“向心/离心”结构理论即使就英语来说也不是一种能够覆盖所有合成短语的分析模式。 2 可以这样理解向心/离心结构理论：在一个AB结构体中，如果AB的整体功能和其中的某个成分一致，那AB就是向心结构。否则为离心结构。跟整体功能一致的成分就是结构核心。这个理解在汉语中碰到了麻烦，“雷锋精神”成为双核心的向心结构，“这本书的出版”中“出版”变成了结构核心。如果从结构上来考虑，所有的结构都是向心结构。如果从功能上来考虑就有两种情况，一种是结构核心和整体功能一致的结构，另一种是结构核心和整体功能不一致的结构。主谓短语、动宾短语在结构上都是向心的，但是在功能上则不是向心的。至于叫他什么，那就无所谓了。

38. 2.4 Coordination and Subordination
Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:
Coordination
subordination

39. Coordination 并列结构
Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .
These two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.

40. Coordination of NPs: Coordination of VPs: Coordination of PPs:
[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]
Coordination of VPs:
[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]
Coordination of PPs:
[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]
Coordination of APs:
[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]
Coordination of Ss:
[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].

41. In a coordinate sentence, two (or more) S constituents occur as daughters and co-heads of a higher S.
One property coordination reveals is that there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.
[NP A man, a woman, a boy, a cat and a dog] got into the car.
Therefore, coordination occupies its own place in the creativity of language: i.e. recursiveness

42. Subordination 从属结构
Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.
The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.

43. two  dogs
          Head
(My brother) can drink (wine).
Head
Swimming in the lake (is fun).
(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance.

44. Subordinate clauses
Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:
complement clauses
adjunct (or adverbial) clauses
relative clauses

45. John believes [that the airplane was invented by an Irishman]
John believes [that the airplane was invented by an Irishman]. (complement clause)
Elizabeth opened her presents [before John finished his dinner]. (adverbial clause)
The woman [that I love] is moving to the south. (relative clause)

46. 3. Syntactic Function 句法功能
The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.
Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.

47. 3.1 Subject
In some languages, subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.
The typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case, such as pater and filius in the following examples.
pater filium amat (the father loves the son)
patrum filius amat (the son loves the father)

48. In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.
This definition seems to work for these sentences:
Mary slapped John. ■ A dog bit Bill.

49. but is clearly wrong in the following examples:
John was bitten by a dog.
John underwent major heart surgery.
In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” (John) and “logical subject” (a dog).

50. Again, this seems to work for many sentences, such as
Another traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about” (i.e., topic).
Again, this seems to work for many sentences, such as
Bill is a very crafty fellow.
but fails in others, such as
(Jack is pretty reliable, but) Bill I don’t trust.
As for Bill, I wouldn’t take his promises very seriously.

51. All three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we could say that Bill is the topic of all three sentences.
The above sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject.
What characteristics do subjects have?
Word order
Pro-forms
Agreement with verb
Content questions
Tag questions

52. Word order 词序 Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:
Sally collects stamps.
*Collects Sally stamps.

53. Pro-forms
The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:
He loves me.
I love him.
We threw stones at them.
They threw stones at us.

54. Agreement with the verb
In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb:
She angers him.
They anger him.   
She angers them.

55. Content questions
If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in
John stole the Queen’s picture from the British Council.
Who stole the Queen’s picture from the British council?

56. When any other element of the sentence is replaced by a question word, an auxiliary verb must appear before the subject.
What would John steal, if he had the chance?
What did John steal from the British Council?
Where did John steal the Queen’s picture from?

57. Tag question
A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.
John loves Mary, doesn’t he?
Mary loves John, doesn’t she?
*John loves Mary, doesn’t she?

58. 3.2 Predicate
Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.
It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.
The boy is running. (process)
Peter broke the glass. (action)
Jane must be mad! (state)
The word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in a predicate.

59. 3.3 Object
Traditionally, object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.
Mother bought a doll.
Mother gave my sister  a doll.
IO   DO

60. In some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case (受格) for direct object, and the dative case (与格) for indirect object.
In English, “object” is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pro­nouns).
Mother gave a doll to my sister.
John kicked me.

61. Modern linguists suggest that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a passive transformation.
John broke the glass.  The glass was broken by John.
Peter saw Jane.  Jane was seen by Peter.
Although there are nominal phrases in the following, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice.
He died last week.
The match lasted three hours.
He changed trains at Manchester. (*Trains were changed by him at Manchester.)

62. 3.4 The Relation between Classes and Functions
Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-one relation.
A class item can perform several functions.
For instance, a noun or a nominal phrase can function as the subject, object, modi­fier, adverbial and complement of a sentence.
A function can also be fulfilled by several classes.
For instance, the subject of a sentence can be realized by a noun, pronoun, numeral, infinitive, etc.
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63. 4. Category 范畴
The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units:
Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability
Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice

64. 4.1 Number 数
Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural,(单数，双数，复数) etc.
In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs.
Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.

65. In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.
le cheval royal (the royal horse)
les chevaux royaux (the royal horses)

66. 4.2 Gender 性
Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.
Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assignment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases.
For instance, in Latin, ignis ‘fire’ is masculine, while flamma ‘flame’ is feminine.

67. English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they are mainly of the natural gender type.
he: she: it
prince: princess
author: authoress

68. In French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles.
beau cadeau (fine gift)
belle maison (fine house)
Le cadeau est beau. (The gift is good.)
La maison est belle. (The house is beautiful.)

69. Sometimes gender changes the lexical meaning as well, for example, in French:
le poele (the stove)
la poele (the frying pan)
le pendule (the pendulum)
la pendule (the clock)

70. 4.3 Case 格
The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.
In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc.
There are five cases in ancient Greek and eight in Sanskrit. Finnish has as many as fifteen formally distinct cases in nouns, each with its own syntactic function.

71. In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun, and it is realized in three channels:
inflection
following a preposition
word order
as manifested in
teacher : teacher’s
with : with a man
John kicked Peter : Peter kicked John

72. 汉语的格 从Chomsky的“格理论”看汉语的“格” 刘道英 青海民族学院学报（社会科学版） 2000年02期
刘道英 青海民族学院学报（社会科学版） 2000年02期
在传统语法研究中，由于汉语是分析性语言，名词没有“格”这似乎已成定论。本文试就美国语言学家Chomsky的普遍语法——“管约论”(简称GB)中的“格理论”(Case theory)，对汉语名词的格进行分析，证实汉语名词有自己的格位形式标识——介词和句法位置(词序)，有自己的格位类型，也证明了“格理论”同样适用于缺少形态变化的汉语，它具有普遍性。
关键词： Chomsky    格理论    汉语    论旨    论元    格位    空语类

73. 4.4 Agreement 一致关系
Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).

74. This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric（照应的）, as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent （先行语）,
Whose is this pen? --Oh, it’s the one I lost.
or it may involve a relation between a head and its dependent, as when a verb agrees with its subject and object:
Each person may have one coin.

75. Agreement of number between nouns and verbs:
This man runs.   The bird flies. 
These men run.      These birds fly.

76. 5. Phrase, Clause and Sentence
Word 词

77. 5.1 Phrase
PHRASE is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.
Traditionally, it is seen as part of a structural hierarchy, positioned between clause and word.

78. Therefore,
1. a phrase must be a group of words which form a constituent.
2. a phrase is lower on the grammatical hierarchy than clauses.
More precisely, simple clauses may (and usually do) contain phrases, but simple phrases do not (in general) contain clauses.

79. the three tallest girls (nominal phrase)
has been doing
(verbal phrase)
extremely difficult
(adjectival phrase)
to the door (prepositional phrase)
very fast
(adverbial phrase)

80. Distinction between WORD GROUP and PHRASE.
A word group is an extension of word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged.
Thus we have nominal group, verbal group, adverbial group, conjunction group and preposition group (e.g. right behind, all along). “To the door” is still accepted as a prepositional phrase which consists of a preposition plus a nominal group, and is, consequently, no longer a preposition.
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81. 5.2 Clause
A constituent with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence, is a CLAUSE.
Clause can also be classified into FINITE and NON-FINITE clauses, the latter including the traditional infinitive phrase, participial phrase, and gerundial phrase.
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82. A finite clause（限定性分句） has a finite verb. A finite verb has tense. E.g.: “I run daily.” A non-finite clause（非限定性分句） has a verb without tense. E.g.: "...to run daily..."

84. 5.3 Sentence
Bloomfield (1935) defined the sentence as one “not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any larger linguistic form”.
Sentences may be classified along the intersecting dimensions of structure and function.
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85. Sentence: traditional approach
simple
Sentence complex复合句
non-simple
compound并列句

86. Sentence: functional approach
疑问 Yes/no
Interrogative
Indicative wh-
Declarative
Sentence
Jussive 命令语气
Imperative
Optative 祈愿语气
陈述语气
祁使语气

87. Basic sentence types: Bolinger
Mother fell. (Nominal + intransitive verbal)
Mother is young. (Nominal + copula（系词） + complement)
Mother loves Dad. (Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal).
Mother fed Dad breakfast. (Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal + nominal)
There is time. (There + existential + nominal)

88. Basic sentence types: Quirk
SVC    Mary is kind.
a nurse.
SVA    Mary is here.
in the house.
SV      The child is laughing.
SVO    Somebody caught the ball.
SVOC   We have proved him wrong.
                                         a fool.
SVOA    I put the plate on the table.
SVOO   She gives me expensive presents.

89. 6. Recursiveness 递归性
Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining （连接）and embedding（嵌入）, hypotactic（从属关系） and paratactic（并列关系）
All these are means to extend sentences.

90. Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication. The same holds true for nominal clauses and adverbial clauses. This is what we call recursiveness.
I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new …

91. John’s sister
John’s sister’s husband
John’s sister’s husband’s uncle
John’s sister’s husband’s uncle’s daughter, etc.
that house in Beijing
the garden of that house in Beijing
the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing
a bird on the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing

92. 6.1 Conjoining连接 Conjoining: coordination.
Conjunctions: and, but, and or.
John bought a hat and his wife bought a handbag.
Give me liberty or give me death. 

93. 6.2 Embedding嵌入 Embedding: subordination.
Main clauses and subordinate clauses.
Three basic types of subordinate clauses:
Relative clause: I saw the man who had visited you last year.
Complement clause: I don’t know whether Professor Li needs this book.
Adverbial clause: If you listened to me, you wouldn't make mistakes.

94. 7. Beyond the Sentence
Linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in a paragraph or chapter or the whole text, which leads to the emergence of text linguistics（篇章语言学） and discourse analysis（话语分析）. 

95. 7.1 Sentential Connection
Hypotactic从属分句 (subordinate clauses):
You can phone the doctor if you like. However, I very much doubt whether he is in.
We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.
Paratactic 并列分句 (coordinate clauses):
In Guangzhou it is hot and humid during the summer. In Beijing it is hot and dry.
He dictated the letter. She wrote it.
The door was open. He walked in.

96. 7.2 Cohesion and cohesiveness衔接和连贯
Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.
Cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices衔接手段:
Conjunction连词
Ellipsis省略
Lexical collocation词汇搭配
Lexical repetition词汇复现
Reference指称
Substitution, etc. 替代

97. “Did she get there at six?”
“No, (she got there) earlier (than six).” (Ellipsis)
“Shall we invite Bill?”
“No. 1 can’t stand the man.” (Lexical collocation)
He couldn’t open the door. It was locked tight. (Reference)
“Why don’t you use your own recorder?”
“I don't have one.” (Substitution)
I wanted to help him. Unfortunately it was too late. (Logical connection)

98. Study Questions 1. Define the following terms.
syntagmatic relation paradigmatic relation
immediate constitute analysis endocentric construction
exocentric construction coordination
subordination number
gender case
agreement (concord) phrase
clause sentence
recursiveness conjoining
embedding cohesion
2. Create a tree diagram and also make a bracketed analysis of the following sentence: The thief stole a wallet.

99. 3. Cut the following into immediate constituents by putting a slash (/) where the cut should be made in each sentence. Ignore the elements in brackets where they occur.
E.g. I rode back/when it was dark.
(a) The boy was crying.
(b) The pretty little girl in a clean white dress has been talking since she came into the room.
(c) Shut the door.
(d) Open the door quickly.
(e) (The happy teacher in that class (was beaming away).
(f) (I spoke to) the kindly old lady in the choir who was praying for me.
(g) (He) bought an old car with his first pay cheque.

100. 4. For each of the underlined constructions or word groups, do the following:
--State whether it is headed or non-headed.
--If headed, state its headword.
--Name the type of constructions.
E.g. His son will be keenly competing.
Answer: headed, headword—competing; verbal group
(a) Ducks quack.
(b) The ladder in the shed is long enough.
(c) I saw a bridge damaged beyond repair.
(d) Singing hymns is forbidden in some countries.
(e) His handsome face appeared in the magazine.
(f) A lady of great beauty came out.
(g) He enjoys climbing high mountains.
(h) The man nodded patiently.
(i) A man roused by the insult drew his sword.

101. 5. Combine the following pairs of sentences
5. Combine the following pairs of sentences. Make the second sentence of each pair into a relative clause, and then embed it into the first.
(a) The comet appears every twenty years. Dr. Okada discovered the comet.
(b) Everyone respected the quarterback. The quarterback refused to give up.
(c) The most valuable experiences were small ones. I had the experiences on my trip to Europe.
(d) Children will probably become abusers of drugs or alcohol. Children’s parents abuse alcohol.
(e) Many nations are restricting emissions of noxious gases. The noxious gases threaten the atmosphere.