Combined Lecture Slides, Weeks

Combined Lecture Slides, Weeks 04 - 07
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Spring 2016 Instructor: John Miyamoto Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.

Next: Lecture 04-1 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15

There is no lecture file for this date
There is no lecture file for this date. There was no lecture on this date because it was an exam day.

Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory & Working Memory
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Instructor: John Miyamoto 04/19/2016: Lecture 04-2 Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.

To Be Discussed Later Memory Systems UW: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Outline Overview of memory systems: Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory / Working Memory (STM / WM) Long-Term Memory (LTM) What function do these memory systems serve? This lecture Later WM Multiple Components LTM Multiple Components What Are Memory Systems? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What Are Memory Systems?
Memory systems retain perceptions, images, motor patterns, experiences, ideas, thoughts, and intentions that were present at one time but are no longer present. Major Functions of Memory Systems Store information over a period of time (seconds; minutes; hours; years) Pass information between different memory systems Encode information (put information into a long-term storage) Retrieve memories or previous learning based on relevance or usefulness in current processing. Especially important: Retrieval of information that is relevant to a current activity. Manipulate information in working memory Modal Model of Memory UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

The Modal Memory Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
Goldstein Figure 5.2 Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Input Control Processes, e.g., rehearsal Output: Speech & Actions The Modal Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) Sensory Memory – brief storage of current perceptual inputs. STM – short-term storage of current mental activity STM or Working Memory (WM) has multiple components LTM – long-term storage of experiences, thoughts, facts LTM also has multiple components What Happens When Rachel Looks Up a Phone Number Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What happens as Rachel looks up a phone number?
(a) She looks at the page in the phone book Perceptual information enters sensory memory. (b) She pays attention to the relevant phone number. The number is stored in short-term memory (STM). (c) She dials the phone number while main taining the number in STM (rehearsal). Example Continued UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What happens as Rachel looks up a phone number?
(d) She memorizes the phone number (stores the number in long term memory or LTM). This process is called encoding. (e) Days later, she retrieves the number from LTM. Return to the Modal Memory Model UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Goldstein Figure 5.2 Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Input Control Processes, e.g., rehearsal Output: Speech & Actions The Modal Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) Sensory Memory – brief storage of current perceptual inputs. STM – short-term storage of current mental activity STM or Working Memory (WM) has multiple components LTM – long-term storage of experiences, thoughts, facts LTM also has multiple components Distinction Between STM and LTM Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Distinction Between STM & LTM
Standard STM example: Remember the following words: We will wait, perhaps, 15 seconds. Then I’ll ask you to tell me the words that you read in the order that they were written. Another STM example: You know where you are right now and what you are doing there. You are actively processing this information (along with other thoughts). LTM refers to a variety of memory processes that allow retrieval of memories that are not currently preserved in STM. hand, chair, reed, bottle hand, chair, reed, bottle Illustration of LTM vs STM Distinction from Goldstein Textbook UW: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Figure 6.1: Example of the STM/LTM Distinction
List of Functions That Are Included in LTM UW: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

LTM Includes ..... Important information about the self and events in the world, but also, ... Trivial information about what has happened in the recent past, e.g., what was the picture at the beginning of the lecture), and also, .... “Semantic” knowledge, e.g., what is an apple, a pencil; which is bigger, a mouse or a moose; etc. How to do things: Tie your shoes, drive a car, dial a phone number, cook a meal, .... Learned associations that are not explicit, e.g., the atmosphere of a dentist’s office makes you feel apprehensive. Diagram of Modal Memory Model – Next Topic = Sensory Memory UW: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Input Control Processes, e.g., rehearsal Output: Speech & Actions Next SUMMARY OF MAJOR MEMORY SYSTEMS Sensory Memory – brief storage of current perceptual inputs. STM – short-term storage of current mental activity STM or Working Memory (WM) has multiple components LTM – long-term storage of experiences, thoughts, facts LTM also has multiple components Definition of Sensory Memory UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Sensory Memory Example: Sparkler trail or flash image in a dark room.
Sensory memory is the retention of the effects of sensory stimulation. Very brief – less then 1 second. Sensory memory is partly due to processes that are close to level of the receptors, but it has a major component that is central. "Central" means at the level of the cortex, i.e., at the level of the visual cortex for visual stimuli; at the level of the auditory cortex for auditory stimuli, etc. What are the capacity limits for visual sensory memory? How much information is stored? How long can it be stored? Diagram: Where Is the Capacity Limit in the Memory System? UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Evidence for a Capacity Limit on Sensory or Short-Term Memory
Suppose a letter array is flashed on the screen to the right. Can you name all of the letters in a specific row, e.g., in Row 3? E R U P W I N Q M X T V Y S O K Continue with Slide with Example of Pre-Cueing Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Suppose a letter array is flashed on the screen to the right. Can you name all of the letters in a specific row, e.g., in Row 3? The task is easy if I tell you the row to remember before I flash the letter array. (See letter array to the right.) Pay attention to Row 2. Answer: P E C Z E R U P W I N Q M X T V Y S O K O A W N P E C Z H X M U V F B I O A W N P E C Z H X M U V F B I Same Problem is Hard If You Must Remember All 16 Letters Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Suppose a letter array is flashed on the screen to the right. Can you name all 16 letters in the array? The task is hard if I ask you to remember all 16 letters in the letter array. (See letter array to the right.) What were the 16 letters in the array? E R U P W I N Q M X T V Y S O K U R V X Y Z Q M I C D W L T J N U R V X Y Z Q M I C D W L T J N Is the Capacity Limit on Sensory Memory or STM? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Controversy: Is the capacity limit a limit on sensory memory, or short-term memory?
Transfer too slow? Limit here? Limit here? Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Input We have evidence that a capacity limit exists: You can accurately report a pre-selected 4 letters from a 12 letter array, but you can't accurately report all 12 letters. Is there a limit on the capacity of sensory memory? Sperling's Partial Report Paradigm UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Sperling’s Partial Report Procedure (Paradigm)
Digression on Terminology: An "experimental paradigm" is a type of experiment. Often there will be many experiments that all use the same paradigm. Purpose of Sperling's partial report paradigm: To determine what are the limits on the capacity of sensory memory. To save lecture time, I will not explain the partial report paradigm in lecture. Students will be responsible for knowing its purpose and its conclusions, but not how it works. Sperling’s partial report paradigm is important for perceptual psychology. Not so important for higher cognitive processes. Diagram: Conclusion re Capacity of Sensory Memory UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Conclusion of Partial Report Experiment
Very large, possibly unlimited capacity. Information decays to 0 within 1 second. Control Processes Input Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Output: Speech/Actions What Is Meant By Capacity Limits on Memory? UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What Is Meant by Limits on Memory Capacity?
Limit on memory capacity refers to a limit on the amount of information that can be held in memory. Not the amount of information that can be input to memory (encoding), and not the amount of information that can be retrieved from memory (retrieval). Sensory memory – very large, approximately unlimited Short-Term memory – ? Long-Term memory – very large, approximately unlimited Next: Introduction to Short-Term Memory & Working Memory Overview of Short-Term Memory & Working Memory UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Overview of Short-Term Memory (STM) & Working Memory (WM)
Intermediate processing stage between sensory memory & long-term memory Emphasis on quantitative aspects: Limited in amount of information storage. Limited duration of storage. Working Memory (WM) – evolved out of the concept of STM Same as above plus some additional ideas Multicomponent system – verbal, visual-spatial, episodic components Emphasis on manipulation of information & control of information flow. Three Important Aspects of STM UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Three Important Characteristics of STM
Short-Term Memory = STM STM has limited capacity Active maintenance is needed to retain information in STM. Without active maintenance information is quickly lost from STM. Information in STM is high accessible. Capacity Limits on STM - Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus Two Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What Are the Limits on STM Capacity?
George Miller, "The Magic Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two." What is this about? Two Aspects of STM Capacity: Quantity & Duration Quantity: How many separate pieces of information can be held in STM? Duration: How long does information last in STM if we don't actively process it? Demo re Measurement of Memory Span Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Demo: Memory Span for Digits
On each trial, you will see a sequence of numbers (digits) presented one after the other. Your Task: Write down all of the digits in the order in which they were presented. For example, if you see    Write down: Demo with 4 Digits – Fixation Point Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit Span Trial with 4 Digits
* Display Digits – Automatic Timer, 1 Sec. per Slide Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit 7 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What Were the Digits? Correct Answer 7 3 2 5
Demo with 10 Digits – Fixation Point Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit Span Trial with 10 Digits
* Display Digits – Automatic Timer, 1 Second per Slide Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Memory Span for Digits: About 7  2
Clearly retaining 3 or 4 digits is easy. Retaining 15 or more digits is impossible. Typical limit is around 7  2 is the memory span for digits Luck & Vogel (1997): Memory Span for Colors & Positions Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What Were the Digits? Correct Answer Obviously, 10 digits are much harder to retain than 4 digits digits would be impossible to retain Except possibly if you had special training to do this task. Memory Span for Digits: About 7  2 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Tuesday, April 19, 2016: The Lecture Ended Here
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Limits on the Quantity & Duration of Information Held in Short-Term Memory

Lecture probably ends here
Outline Mention Friday section & essay quiz How much information can be retained in STM? How long does information last in STM? Brown-Peterson task Retroactive and proactive interference Proactive interference and the Brown-Peterson paradigm Lecture probably ends here Results for Memory Span for Digits Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Memory Span for Digits: About 7  2
Digit Span Memory Task: Digits are presented one at a time. (Experimenter controls how many digits will be presented.) After subject sees the digits, subject must respond with the exact sequence of digits that were presented. Dependent variable: Percentage of trials with perfect performance when the number of digits equals 2 or 3 or ... or 10 or 11 or ..... Result: Retaining 3 or 4 digits is easy Retaining 15 or more digits is impossible. Typical limit is around 7  2 digits is the memory span for digits * Digit span is defined as the number of digits that a person can correctly recall on 50% of the trials. Luck & Vogel (1997): Memory Span for Colors & Positions Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Memory Span for Color & Location
Luck & Vogel (1997) is described in Goldstein's Figure 5.8 and Figure 5.9. Subject sees some colored squares on one slide followed by another slide with colored squares. Subject’s task is to say whether the two slides are identical or different. Result: Performance drops off radically after presentation contains more than 3 squares. Typical Results for Memory Span with Different Contents Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Typical Results for Memory Span with Different Contents
We can repeat this experiment with different types of items. Auditory (spoken) digits Nonsense syllables – CVC form like "KOR" Short words chosen at random Long words chosen at random George Miller's "Magic Number Seven Plus or Minus Two". Conclusion: There is a strong capacity limit on STM, i.e., there is a limit on the total number of items that can be retained in STM. Return to "Magical Number 7 +/- 2: Raise Issue of Chunking Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus Two
Miller, G. A. (1956) The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81–97. There is a strong limit on the quantity of information stored in STM. Roughly the same limit applies to many different contents, e.g., digits, nonsense syllables, short words, long words, colors in different positions on a screen, tones of different pitch, etc. Limitation on STM capacity only applies if there are no meaningful relationships between separate items. When meaningful relationships exist among the items, many more items can be held in STM. Some Issues re Measures of Memory Span Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Some Issues Regarding Measures of STM Capacity Limits
The preceding examples use low-meaning stimuli. Would the results differ if we used stimuli with more meaning? Example: Waiter or waitress taking a dinner order: I'll have the mushroom soup, the filet of sole with green beans, and rice. (14 words) I'll have a ceasar salad, the flank steak medium rare, carrots and peas, and mashed potatoes. (16 words) I'll have ..... Answer: Yes, the results are different when the stimuli are meaningful. How should we interpret this? (See next slide). Chunking & Recoding Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

STM Capacity Limits Apply When Stimuli Are Unrelated
The capacity limit, 7 ± 2, applies to sequences of stimuli .... that do not have an internal organization. Example (no internal organization): EGG, PEN, FOG, CAR, BELT, FLY, .... Example (has internal organization): YESTERDAY I WENT SHOPPING FOR A NEW COAT I WANTED A WARM COAT THAT HAS A HOOD, .... "Chunk" – a larger unit of information built out of related smaller units. Example of Chunking – Animals List Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

golden bears bruins husky beaver cardinal cougar duck buffalo
Example of Chunking Your Task: Remember the following 12 words: Can you remember the words in the list? ANSWER = mascots of Pac-12 schools: husky, cougar, duck, beaver, cardinal, golden bear, bruin, trojans, wildcats, sun devils, buffalo, Utes We "chunk" the individual items under the concept “mascots of Pac-12 schools.” golden bears bruins husky beaver cardinal cougar duck buffalo sun devils wildcats Utes trojans Chunking in Everyday Experience Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Chunking in Everyday Experience
Typically everyday experience is meaningful. Not like trying to remember a series of unrelated digits in the lab! In everyday experience, people constantly reorganize the current information in terms of related general knowledge. In a very unfamiliar situation, you may feel overwhelmed with information overload – you aren’t able to chunk effectively in the unfamiliar situation. Recoding - Definition Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Recoding "Recoding" – Changing the representational format (change in code) Recoding of information in STM can affect ability to retain information in STM. Codes in STM & LTM Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Codes in Short-Term & Long-Term Memory
A "code" is a format in which information is represented in the cognitive system. (Not the same as the "neural code") Phonological codes – words represented as sequences of sounds. Visual codes – mental imagery, diagrams, perceptual memories Semantic codes – meanings. Short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) use all of these codes plus possibly others that are not listed here. Particular tasks may be biased towards one kind of coding. Next: Evidence for different types of mental codes. This evidence is just a taste – later lectures will present much more evidence. Evidence for Phonological Codes Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Evidence for Phonological Codes
Phonological codes (representing words in terms of the sound of the words) Conrad (1964): People who are asked to remember visually presented letters, make mistakes that confuse a correct letter with similar sounding letters. Example: Suppose you are asked to remember AFTR. (The letters are presented visually one after the another a screen.) Common mistake: ASTR or AFPR Notice "S" sounds like "F" and "P" sounds like "T". The letters were presented visually, so the effect of sound similarity is due to the way the subject represents the stimulus, and not the stimulus alone. Evidence for Visual Codes – Mental Rotation Studies Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Evidence for Visual Codes: Shepard's Mental Rotation Experiments
TASK: As quickly as possible, decide whether the two figures shown to the right have the same or different shapes. Response time for "identical" figures is a linear (straight-line) function of the angle of rotation between the figures. Easy to explain if subjects are rotating a mental image. Hard to explain if mental representation is exclusively propositional. The mental rotation experiment which is used as an example in this lecture is described in Goldstein pp. 134 – The main point of this example is that the most plausible explanation for the result is that subjects create a mental image of the geometric figure which they manipulate (rotate) in working memory in order to determine whether the figures are congruent or incongruent. This is evidence for image-like representations in STM. Response Time Angle of Rotation Mental Rotation Experiment - Interpretation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Evidence for Visual Codes: Shepard's Mental Rotation Experiments
Result is easy to explain if we assume that subjects are rotating a mental image. Results are hard to explain if mental representation is exclusively propositional. “Propositional representation” = Symbolic code like human language or a computer language. Easy to explain if subjects are rotating a mental image. Hard to explain if mental representation is exclusively propositional. Response Time Angle of Rotation Semantic Codes Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Semantic Codes Confusions between long-term memories are usually based on similarity of meaning rather than on similarity of sound or appearance. Example: Suppose you must remember the following words DOG, PONY, WOLF, ELEPHANT, PENCIL, WHALE Recognition memory test: Did the list contain "PONY"? Did the list contain "EAGLE"? Later you are more likely to say "Yes" to "HORSE" than to "LOG." (Intrusion Error: False recognition due to similarity of meaning) Later you are more likely to say "No" to "PENCIL" than to "WOLF." (Omission Error: False rejection due to dissimilarity of meaning) Semantic codes also play a role in STM but these examples are more complicated. * Proactive interference is an example of an effect of semantic coding on STM. Summary re Codes Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Summary re Memory Codes
Recoding: Changing the code in which information is represented, e.g., changing from a phonological code to a visual code. The phonological code is the primary code for STM. The semantic code is the primary code for LTM. Other codes are also used in STM and LTM, e.g., visual code. Some tasks are easier to perform by using one type of code or another. Recoding can sometimes help to overcome capacity limits of STM. Overview of STM & WM Models Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Example of Recoding "It is a cold but sunny winter day. You are looking across Drumheller Fountain. Mt. Rainier is visible in the distance. Two children are playing with a ball next to the fountain. They accidentally throw the ball into the water." If you formed a mental image of the situation, then this is an example of recoding (changing from the verbal format to an image format). Recoding involves changing the cognitive “code." Recoding can increase the amount of information that one can retain in STM by putting it into a form that is more easily retained, e.g., changing verbal information into a mental image. Example of Chunking and/or Recoding – Chess Master Example Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Famous Example of Chunking and/or Recoding Chess Masters versus Chess Novices (Beginners)
Chase and Simon (1973a, 1973b): Chess masters can remember the locations of a large number of pieces on a chess board if it is flashed in front of them. Chase and Simon's studies are discussed in Chapter 12 of Goldstein (2014, 4th edition). They also illustrate differences in how chess experts and chess novices use their memory resources. Results for Realistic Boards Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Chess Masters versus Chess Beginners (Novices)
Master does better because he can chunk based on strategic relationships. Master does no better than novice because he can’t chunk. Master Novice (a) Actual game positions (b) Random placement Chess masters are much better than chess novices at remembering chess positions. Results for Random Boards Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Chess Masters versus Chess Beginners (Novices)
Master does better because he can chunk based on strategic relationships Master does no better than novice because he can’t chunk. Master Novice (a) Actual game positions (b) Random placement Masters and novices are equally bad at remembering a random chess position (impossible position) on a chess board. Chunking Summary Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Summary: Chunking, Recoding, STM Capacity Limits
As we take in information, we reorganize it into larger chunks, and we recode the information into other mental formats. Knowledge, learning, and past experience help us use our limited-capacity short-term memory more effectively. Are experiments that study STM capacity limits relevant to everyday life? In everyday life, we almost never try to remember sequences of unrelated information. Yes – the capacity limits are always present, even if they are hidden by our chunking and recoding strategies in everyday life. What Causes Forgetting in WM/STM? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Are Experiments that Study STM Capacity Limits Relevant to Everyday Life?
In everyday life, we almost never try to remember sequences of unrelated information. Yes – the capacity limits are always present, even if they are hidden by our chunking and recoding strategies in everyday life. STM capacity limits strongly influence reasoning strategies even if they don't directly quantify the amount of semantically- related information that can be held in STM. What Causes Forgetting from WM/STM? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What Causes Forgetting from WM/STM?
Why is information lost from STM? How long does information last in STM without active processing? Two hypotheses Decay – representations of information simply "fall apart." Interference – other information "bumps" information out of STM. Brown-Peterson paradigm – an attempt to measure how long information is retained in STM without active processing. General Conclusion: Without active processing, all information is lost after 15 – 20 seconds. What causes the loss of information? Interference - one very likely cause. Decay - hard to prove convincingly that decay occurs; maybe it does. Examples of forgetting from STM: Forgetting what you are doing – suddenly you can’t remember why you picked up a tool or walked into a room, etc. Your intention of what to do next is part of the content of STM – if something bumps it out, you may be temporarily unable to retrieve the intention. Example: If you remember something you want to do when you get home, but if you don’t write it down, you may forget it and not remember it later. The Brown-Peterson Paradigm - Example Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Decay in Short-Term Memory (STM) then: The Working Memory (WM) Model

Outline What causes forgetting in STM? Decay Interference (proactive interference and retroactive interference) Measurement of decay in STM: The Brown/Peterson paradigm Working memory (WM) model of Baddeley & Hitch Phonological loop Visuospatial sketch pad Episodic working memory Evidence for the phonological loop Lecture probably ends here Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16

What Causes Forgetting from WM/STM?
Why is information lost from STM? How long does information last in STM without active processing? Two hypotheses Decay – representations of information simply "fall apart." Interference – other information "bumps" information out of STM. Brown-Peterson paradigm – an attempt to measure how long information is retained in STM without active processing. General Conclusion: Without active processing, all information is lost after 15 – 20 seconds. What causes the loss of information? Interference - It is certain that this is one cause. Decay - hard to prove convincingly that decay occurs; maybe it does. Examples of forgetting from STM: Forgetting what you are doing – suddenly you can’t remember why you picked up a tool or walked into a room, etc. Your intention of what to do next is part of the content of STM – if something bumps it out, you may be temporarily unable to retrieve the intention. Example: If you remember something you want to do when you get home, but if you don’t write it down, you may forget it and not remember it later. The Brown-Peterson Paradigm - Example Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Brown-Peterson Paradigm
Brown-Peterson paradigm – an attempt to measure how long information is retained in STM without active processing. The Brown-Peterson task is this past week’s Coglab. Example of the Task: Remember three letters: Count backwards by 3’s from the given number: Stop counting and report the letters when the experimenter tells you to do so. P N R 108 Duration of delay is different on different trials, e.g., 5 second, 10 second, 15 seconds, ..... Brown-Peterson Paradigm – Summary of the Task Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What is the Purpose of the Brown-Peterson Paradigm?
Brown-Peterson paradigm – an attempt to measure how long information is retained in STM without active processing. Remember three letters, e.g., “P N R" Count backwards by 3's from a given number Report the letters after a delay Goal: Measure decay characteristics of STM. Counting backwards by 3’s is an example of articulatory suppression. Later when we discuss working memory, we will say that counting backwards by 3’s suppresses rehearsal in the phonological loop (PL). Assumption 1: While you are counting backwards, you cannot rehearse “P N R”. Assumption 2: Counting backwards by 3's does not interfere with retention of "P N R". Results for Brown-Peterson Task – Averaged Results Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Results for the Brown-Peterson Paradigm
Delay in Seconds IMPORTANT FACT: These results are averaged over many trials. Superficially, the results support the hypothesis that without active processing, almost all information is lost after about 15 – 20 seconds. Keppel & Underwood: Reanalysis for 3rd & 18th Trial Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Keppel & Underwood’s Reanalysis of Brown-Peterson Results
Delay in Seconds Panel (b): Performance on the 1st trial of Brown-Peterson task. Panel (c): Performance on the 3rd trial of Brown-Peterson task. Performance at 18 second delay gets worse as subject performs more memory trials! Same Graph – Hypothesis That Proactive Interference Causes Forgetting Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Keppel & Underwood’s Reanalysis of Brown-Peterson Results
Delay in Seconds Why does performance at 18 second delay get worse as subject performs more memory trials? Proactive interference – explained on next slide Interference – Definition; Proactive & Retroactive Interference Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Interference – a Cause of Forgetting
Interference as a cause of forgetting – something you learn or already know makes it difficult to remember something else. Retroactive Interference (RI): New learning interferes with recall of previous learning. Example: What did you see when you walked to school 7 days ago? Everything you have seen since then interferes with access to that memory. Example: Julie used to go out with Tom and now she goes out with Ted. Memory of Julie/Ted interferes with memory of Julie/Tom. Proactive Interference (PI): Old learning interferes with recall of new learning. Example: If you already play tennis, it is harder to learn to play badminton than if you already play basketball (not tennis). Example: It is hard to remember where I parked my car today because I have many memories of parking my car in various places. Experimental Design for Wicken’s Exp Showing Release from PI Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Forgetting in Brown-Peterson Paradigm Is Due in Part to PI
Simplified Version of Figure 6.6 (p. 157): Wicken's Study of Influence of Proactive Interference on Brown-Peterson Task Wicken’s experiment uses the Brown-Peterson paradigm. Experiment has 3 groups, but only two are important. Same Slide – Emphasis Rectangle on Fruit Group Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Forgetting in Brown-Peterson Paradigm Is Due in Part to PI
Simplified Version of Figure 6.6 (p. 157): Wicken's Study of Influence of Proactive Interference on Brown-Peterson Task Fruit Group: Every trial requires subject to remember 3 fruit. Meat Group: Trials 1 – 3 require remembering meat words. Trial 4 requires remembering fruit words. Results of Wicken’s Experiment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Forgetting in Brown-Peterson Paradigm Results in Part from PI
Fruit Group Trial 1: banana, peach, apple Trial 2: plum, apricot, lime Trial 3: melon, lemon, grape Trial 4: orange, cherry, pineapple (same category) Meat Group Trial 1: salami, pork, chicken Trial 2: bacon, hot doc, beef Trial 3: hamburger, turkey, veal Trial 4: orange, cherry, pineapple (switch category) Same Remember list of fruits after remembering other lists of fruits. Remember list of fruits after remembering lists of meats. Fruit Group Meat Group This figure was cut & pasted from slides distributed with Goldstein, 4th edition. The R-code ‘\p355\rcode\release.fr.pi.fig.5.12.docm’ produces a similar graph. % Recalled After 20 s Delay % Recalled After 20 s Delay Same Graph Without the Colored Boxes Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Fruit Group Trial 1: banana, peach, apple Trial 2: plum, apricot, lime Trial 3: melon, lemon, grape Trial 4: orange, cherry, pineapple (same category) Mean Group Trial 1: salami, pork, chicken Trial 2: bacon, hot dog, beef Trial 3: hamburger, turkey, veal Trial 4: orange, cherry, pineapple (switch category) Remember list of fruits after remembering other lists of fruits. Remember list of fruits after remembering lists of meats. Fruit Group Meat Group This figure was cut & pasted from slides distributed with Goldstein, 4th edition. The R-code ‘\p355\rcode\release.fr.pi.fig.5.12.docm’ produces a similar graph. % Recalled After 20 s Delay % Recalled After 20 s Delay Same Graph: Define “Release from PI” Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

PI (Proactive Interference: Previous trials with same category (fruit or meat) interferes with STM retention on current trial. Release from PI: Improved STM retention on trial where PI no longer influences performance. Remember list of fruits after remembering other lists of fruits. Remember list of fruits after remembering lists of meats. Fruit Group Meat Group This figure was cut & pasted from slides distributed with Goldstein, 4th edition. The R-code ‘\p355\rcode\release.fr.pi.fig.5.12.docm’ produces a similar graph. % Recalled After 20 s Delay % Recalled After 20 s Delay Summary: What Causes Forgetting from WM/STM? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Conclusion re Forgetting in the Brown-Peterson Paradigm
Delay in Seconds Proactive interference is a major cause of forgetting in the Brown-Peterson paradigm. Brown-Peterson paradigm attempts to measure decay of memory in STM, but the measurement is confounded with PI (proactive interference). Requirements for the "Perfect" Way to Measure Decay in STM Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Requirements for the "Perfect" Way to Measure Decay in STM
Researcher must discover Task X such that: Performing X does not interfere with retaining some information Z in STM, e.g., Z could be remembering the words "spoon hawk knot". Past learning does not interfere with performance of Z, i.e., no proactive interference. Performing X prevents rehearsal of the to-be-remembered item, e.g., prevents rehearsal of "spoon hawk knot." In the Brown/Peterson task, X = counting backwards by 3's Z = remembering short lists, e.g., short lists of foods, or short lists of digits, or short lists of names, etc. Very hard to discover a good Task X. Bottom-Line re Forgetting in STM Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Bottom Line re Duration of Storage in WM/STM
To keep information in WM/STM, you need to actively process the information. Phonological rehearsal & forming mental images Associating contents of WM/STM with information in LTM (thinking) Without active processing, information in WM/STM is lost after 15 – 20 seconds. In everyday life, information may be lost from WM/STM even more quickly, e.g., after a few seconds, if some new information interferes with the contents of WM/STM. Why is information lost from WM/STM? Interference – well-established cause of forgetting from WM/STM. Decay – no one has yet proved definitively that decay does or does not occur. Overview of WM versus STM - END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Overview of the STM and WM Models
Short-Term Memory (STM) STM is a single component Main theoretical issue: How much information can be stored in STM and how long does it last? Working Memory (WM) WM has multiple components Main theoretical issues: How is information represented in WM? How is information manipulated in WM? The issue of the duration and quantity of information storage is still important for WM, .... but question of how WM manipulates information is the central focus of research. Diagram of the Atkinson/Shiffrin (Modal) Model of Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Modal Model of Memory (circa 1970)
Control Processes Input Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Output: Speech/Actions Diagram for the Baddeley-Hitch Working Memory Model Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Baddeley-Hitch Working Memory (WM) Model
Think of the diagram to the right as an expansion & revision of the standard STM model. Phonological Loop (PL) Storage of sounds Rehearsal Manipulation of verbal information Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP) Storage & manipulation of visual images and spatial information. 3. Central Executive (CE) Directs activity within the PL or VSP. Coordinates activity between PL, VSP, and LTM. Basic Idea: At least two short-term memory stores, audition (language), visual/spatial. What justifies the hypothesis that there are separate memory stores? What justifies the assumption of an executive process. Same Slide Without the Emphasis Rectangles Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Think of the diagram to the right as an expansion & revision of the standard STM model. Phonological Loop (PL) Storage of sounds Rehearsal Manipulation of verbal information Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP) Storage & manipulation of visual images and spatial information. 3. Central Executive (CE) Directs activity within the PL or VSP. Coordinates activity between PL, VSP, and LTM. Basic Idea: At least two short-term memory stores, audition (language), visual/spatial. What justifies the hypothesis that there are separate memory stores? What justifies the assumption of an executive process. What Justifies the Hypothesis: PL is Part of WM? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What Justifies the Hypothesis: PL Is Part of WM?
Summary of Evidence for PL (Phonological Loop) Phonological similarity effect: Memory span is smaller for lists of similar-sounding words than for lists of dissimilar-sounding words. Example 1: Remember the list, D B C T P G (harder) Example 2: Remember the list, K F Y L R Q (easier) Word length effect: Memory span is greater for lists of short words than for lists of long words. Articulatory suppression experiments Neuropsychological evidence (later - not in this lecture) Demo of the Phonological Similarity Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Demo of Phonological Similarity Effect: Memory Span for Words
On each trial, you will see a sequence of words presented one after the other. Your Task: Write down all of the words in the order in which they were presented. For example, if you see ORANGE  LOOSE  GRIP  TUESDAY Write down: ORANGE, LOOSE, GRIP, TUESDAY Note that ORANGE, TUESDAY, GRIP, LOOSE is incorrect. On each trial, make a mental note of how hard it was to do the task. Fixation Point Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Word Span Trial with 5 Words: How Hard Is This?
* Note to Self: The following slides advance automatically on a timer, i.e., don't advance the slides manually. Next: On Click – Display Stimulus Words on a Timer, 1 Slide per second Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit EASE Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit GONE Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit SING Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit TOP Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit CRISP Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What Were the Words? Correct Answer: EASE, GONE, SING, TOP, CRISP
Remember how hard was that task. Next: Repeat task but with different stimulus words. Fixation Point Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Word Span with 5 Words: How Hard is This?
* Note to Self: The following slides advance automatically on a timer, i.e., don't advance the slides manually. On Click, Display Stimulis on Timer, 1 Slide per Second Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit RAKE Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit FATE Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit TASTE Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit BREAK Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit BAIT Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What Were the Words? Correct Answer: RAKE, FATE, TASTE, BREAK, BAIT
Which word list was harder to remember? List 1: The words are not similar in sound. List 2: The words are similar in sound. List 2 is harder to remember. This is the phonological similarity effect. Theoretical Analysis of the Phonological Similarity Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Interpretation of Phonological Similarity Effect
Compare: List 1: EASE GONE SING TOP CRISP MINT DOOR List 2: RAKE FATE TASTE BREAK BAIT RATE FADE Interpretation of Phonological Similarity Effect Phonological similarity effect: Memory span is smaller for similar-sounding words than for dissimilar sounding words. What does this show about working memory? Basic Assumption of PL: One way people maintain information in STM is by rehearsing the sound of words. Similar-sounding words are more confusable in a sound-based rehearsal. Memory span for similar-sounding words should be smaller if retention is based on rehearsal in the PL. The predicted smaller memory span for lists of similar-sounding words is confirmed (even if the stimuli are presented visually!). Repeat this Slide without Yellow TextBox Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15

Interpretation of Phonological Similarity Effect
Phonological similarity effect: Memory span is smaller for similar-sounding words than for dissimilar sounding words. What does this show about working memory? Basic Assumption of PL: One way that people maintain information in STM is by rehearsing the sound of words. Similar-sounding words are more confusable in a sound-based rehearsal. Memory span for similar-sounding words should be smaller if retention is based on rehearsal in the PL. The predicted smaller memory span for lists of similar-sounding words is confirmed (even if the stimuli are presented visually!). Repeat: Evidence for the Existence of a Phonological Loop Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15

Evidence for the Hypothesis: PL Is Part of WM
Phonological similarity effect: Memory span is smaller for lists of similar-sounding words than for lists of dissimilar-sounding words. Example 1: Remember the list, D B C T P G (harder) Example 2: Remember the list, K F Y L R Q (easier) Word length effect: Memory span is greater for lists of short words than for lists of long words. Articulatory suppression experiments Neuropsychological evidence (later - not in this lecture) Phonological similarity effect was explained in lec04-4.p355.spr15.pptm. Demo of the Word Length Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15

Thursday, April 21, 2016: The Lecture Ended Here

Phonological Loop, Visuospatial Sketchpad & Articulatory Suppression

Outline Working Memory (WM) Model is a multi-component model of STM.
Phonological Loop (PL): Phonological similarity effect Word length effect Articulatory suppression reduces phonological similarity effect and word length effect. Visuospatial Sketchpad (VSP) Mental subtraction of images Brooks’ experiment with pointing and verbal responses Lecture ends here Diagram of Working Memory Model Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16

Think of the diagram to the right as an expansion & revision of the standard STM model. Phonological Loop (PL) Storage of sounds Rehearsal Manipulation of verbal information Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP) Storage & manipulation of visual images and spatial information. 3. Central Executive (CE) Directs activity within the PL or VSP. Coordinates activity between PL, VSP, and LTM. Basic Idea: At least two short-term memory stores, audition (language), visual/spatial. What justifies the hypothesis that there are separate memory stores? What justifies the assumption of an executive process. Same Slide Without the Emphasis Rectangles Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Think of the diagram to the right as an expansion & revision of the standard STM model. Phonological Loop (PL) Storage of sounds Rehearsal Manipulation of verbal information Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP) Storage & manipulation of visual images and spatial information. 3. Central Executive (CE) Directs activity within the PL or VSP. Coordinates activity between PL, VSP, and LTM. Basic Idea: At least two short-term memory stores, audition (language), visual/spatial. What justifies the hypothesis that there are separate memory stores? What justifies the assumption of an executive process. What Justifies the Hypothesis: PL is Part of WM? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Next: Demo of Word Length Effect
Word length effect: Memory span is smaller for list of long words than for lists of short words. "Long" means multisyllabic. We already did some trials with short words. Next: Memory span trial with long words. Fixation Point Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Word Span with 5 Words: How Hard is This?
* Note to Self: The following slides advance automatically on a timer, i.e., don't advance the slides manually. On Click, Display Stimulus on a Timer, 1 Slide per Second Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit HABITUALLY Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit NEUROTOXIN Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit ANTICIPATION Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit DECIDUOUS Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Digit SAXOPHONE Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What Were the Words? Correct Answer: HABITUALLY, NEUROTOXIN, ANTICIPATION, DECIDUOUS, SAXOPHONE Which word list was harder to remember? First list: Short dissimilar sounding words Third list: Long dissimilar sounding words . Theoretical Analysis of the Word Length Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Interpretation of Word Length Effect
Word length effect: Memory span is smaller for lists of long words than for lists of short words. What does this show about working memory? Basic assumption of PL: One way that people maintain information in STM is by rehearsing the sound of words. Prediction: Since longer words take longer to rehearse, it takes longer to complete the list and return to each word in the list. Therefore we are more likely to forget longer words from a list of length N than to forget shorter words from a list of length N. Thus, memory span should be smaller for longer words. Prediction is confirmed. Word Length Effect & Digit Span: Chinese, Welsh, & English Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Word Length Effect & Digit Span
England Digits take longer to pronounce in English than in Chinese. Digits take longer to pronounce in Welsh than in English; Digit span is greater for Chinese speakers than for English speakers. Digit span is greater for English speakers than for Welsh speakers. Interpretation: Everybody has the same basic STM capacity. Chinese speakers can rehearse digits faster than English speakers. Therefore they can retain more digits on the average in a Digit Span task. English speakers can rehearse digits faster than Welsh speakers. Therefore they can retain more digits on the average in a Digit Span task. Wales Finding for Welsh speakers was originally noticed by: Ellis, N. C.; Hennelly, R. A. (February 1980). "A bilingual word-length effect: Implications for intelligence testing and the relative ease of mental calculation in Welsh and English". British Journal of Psychology 71 (1): 43–51. They noticed that Welsh children did worse than English speaking children on a digit span portion of the Wechsler IQ test. They investigated the reasons for this; they found that the word length effect was the probable cause. Define Articulatory Suppression – Then Use Articulatory Suppression in Exp Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What Is Articulatory Suppression?
Articulatory Suppression: Have subject speak an irrelevant sound, e.g., "the, the, the, the, ....", while performing a memory task. Purpose of articulatory suppression: Prevent use of PL while performing the memory task. The conflicting task ("the, the, the, ...") prevents use of PL. Prediction: Articulatory suppression should reduce or eliminate the phonological similarity effect and the word length effect because .... articulatory suppression prevents use of PL while performing the memory task, and ... these effects result from phonological representations whose use is blocked by articulatory suppression. Impact of Articulatory Suppression on Word Length Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Word Length Effect & Articulatory Suppression
List 1: (long words) helicopter, transformation, synergy, counterpoint, .... List 2: (short words) ant, top, ear, dog, red, ..... Condition 1A: Subjects read List 1, then try to remember it. Condition 2A: Subjects read List 2, then try to remember it. Condition 1B: Subjects read List 1 while saying "the, the, the, the, ...." Then they try to remember it. Condition 2B: Subjects read List 2 while saying "the, the, the, the, ...." Then they try to remember it. Results of Experiment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Articulatory Suppression Reduces the Word Length Effect
Normal Word Length Effect Articulatory Suppression Cond 1A vs 2A Cond 1B vs 2B book dog neurotoxin mendacious Results for Conditions 1A and 2A were not shown graphically in the Goldstein textbook. Results for Conditions 1B and 2B are shown in Figure 5.13. Conditions 1A and 2A: Normal word length effect was found. Conditions 2A and 2B (with articulatory suppression): Lists of short or long words remember about equally. Difference was not significant. Interpretation of This Result Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Interpretation of Effect of Articulatory Suppression
Normal Word Length Effect Articulatory Suppression Cond 1A vs 2A Cond 1B vs 2B book dog neurotoxin mendacious Articulatory suppression prevents rehearsal of word sounds (probably the subject rehearses the word images). So word length no longer has as much effect. Comment re Articulatory Suppression & Phonological Similarity Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Articulatory Suppression & the Phonological Similarity Effect
Articulatory suppression also reduces the phonological similarity effect. (Results shown in a later lecture and in the textbook.) These results support the existence of PL and the importance of verbal rehearsal in PL. Summary re PL Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Summary re Phonological Loop (PL)
Basic assumption of PL: One way that people maintain information in a short-term memory store by rehearsing the sound of words. This assumption predicts that ... ... similar sounding words should be more easily confused in PL (phonological similarity effect) ... longer words should be harder to maintain in PL (word length effect). ... preventing people from verbal rehearsal should eliminate these effects (articulatory suppression). Return to Diagram of Baddeley-Hitch WM Model - END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Next Phonological Loop (PL) Short-term storage Rehearsal Manipulation of verbal information Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP) Short-term storage of visual & spatial information Manipulation of visual images and spatial information. Next Basic Idea: At least two short-term memory stores, audition (language), visual/spatial. What justifies the hypothesis that there are separate memory stores? What justifies the assumption of an executive process. 3. Central Executive Directs activity within the PL or VSP. Coordinates activity between PL or VSP, and between these components and long-term memory (LTM). Brandimonte’s Mental Subtraction Task Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Brandimonte: Mental Subtraction Task
Brandimonte, M. A., Hitch, G. J., & Bishop, D. V. M. (1992). Influence of short-term memory codes on visual image processing: Evidence from image transformation tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, The mental subtraction task is not discussed in the Goldstein textbook. Sample stimuli, A and A' First, the subject sees A. Next A disappears and the subject sees A'. Mental Subtraction Task: “Mentally subtract" the second stimulus from the first; then name the object that remains. * Important to note that if the subject names the first image, A or B, then it is harder to access a name for the image that remains after subtraction, X or Y, respectively. Same Slide with “Remainder” Image After Subtraction Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Brandimonte: Mental Subtraction Task
X Remainder after mental subtraction Subject is not shown this image. Sample stimuli, A and A' First, the subject sees A. Next A disappears and the subject sees A'. Next A’ disappears and the subject must do the mental subtraction. Mental Subtraction Task: The subject must mentally "subtract" the second stimulus A’ from the first stimulus A, and name the object that remains: e.g., Remainder = Ice Cream Cones. * Important to note that if the subject names the first image, A or B, then it is harder to access a name for the image that remains after subtraction, X or Y, respectively. Instructions for a Sample Trial in the Mental Subtraction Experiment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Sample Experiment: Mental Subtraction
Next you will see an image. After this image is removed, you will see a second image. Mentally subtract the second image from the first image, and name the image that remains after the subtraction. Image 1 of the Mental Subtraction Example Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Example: Memorize This Image
Image B Image to be Subtracted from this Image Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Subtract This Image from the Preceding Image
Image B' Name the Image that Results from Subtraction Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Subtract This Image from the Preceding Image
Name the image that results from mentally subtracting Image B’ from Image B. Name the Image that Results from Subtraction Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Name the Image that Results From Subtracting Image B' from Image B?
Result of Subtracting Image B' from Image B (This image would not be shown to a subject) Possible answer: A fish Summary: Mental Subtraction Experiment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Summary: Mental "Subtraction" Task
X Subtraction Task: The subject must mentally "subtract" the second stimulus from the first, and name the object that remains. Possible answer for A and A' on Left: Ice cream cones. Possible answer for B and B' on Right: Fish Important to note that if the subject names the first image, then it is harder to access a name for the image that remains after subtracting the second image. * Important to note that if the subject names the first image, A or B, then it is harder to access a name for the image that remains after subtraction, X or Y, respectively. Combined with Mental Subtraction with Articulatory Suppression Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Combine Mental Subtraction with Articulatory Suppression
1 2 Condition 1: Subject does the mental subtraction task. Condition 2: Subject says "la, la, la, la, ...." while doing the mental subtraction task. Finding: Subjects perform BETTER in Condition 2 than in Condition Why? Interpretation of Mental Subtraction Experiment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Interpretation of Mental Subtraction Experiment
The stimuli were designed so that subjects could name the object before "subtracting" the second image. E.g., with stimulus 1, a subject might think "headphones". If a subject silently says "headphones" while looking at the left part of stimulus 1, it is harder to see ice cream cones in the image that results from mental subtraction. Saying "la, la, la, la, ...." suppressed the tendency to name the initial stimulus, so the subject relies only on the visual image in VSP. This makes the subtraction task easier. Summary re Mental Subtraction - END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Summary re Mental Subtraction
Assumption: People can maintain a visual/spatial representation of information by actively processing it in VSP. Hypothesis: Suppression of PL can improve processing on tasks if ... ... people are in the habit of naming the image (recoding initial image into the PL), but ..... .... the task is actually performed more easily in VSP. Result: Articulatory suppression does improve performance on the mental subtraction task. This result is hard to explain if STM is a single storage area without separate PL & VSP. END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Brook's Image Scanning Experiment & Neuropsychological Evidence for Spatial Rehearsal

Outline Brandimonte's Mental Subtraction Experiment Mental Subtraction + Articulatory Suppression Brook's Image Scanning Experiment: Interference between VSP & PL Neuropsychological evidence for spatial rehearsal in the VSP Similarities and differences between PL and VSP Done! Purpose of Brook's Image Scanning Experiment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16

Next: Brook’s Image Scanning Experiment
Brooks, L. R. (1968). Spatial and verbal components of the act of recall. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 22, Purpose #1: To show that there are 2 different short-term stores: VSP and PL Purpose #2: To show that ... Performing two different tasks in VSP interfere with each other. Performing two different tasks in PL interfere with each other. Performing one task in VSP and a different task in PL does not cause as much interference Image Scanning Experiment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Image Scanning (Brooks)
Experiment has 4 conditions. 2 types of stimulus: Diagrams or Sentences 2 types of responses: Pointing or Vocal Response* Dependent variable = time to perform a task Next: Explain the different stimulus types and response modes Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Stimulus Types * There was actually a third response type, “tapping”, but it will not be discussed here – it turned out not to be very informative. Point Out that Goldstein Textbook Omits the Sentence Stimuli Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Experiment has 4 conditions. 2 types of stimulus: Diagrams or Sentences 2 types of responses: Pointing or Vocal Response* Dependent variable = time to perform a task Next: Explain the different stimulus types and response modes Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Stimulus Types Same Slide with Remark that Goldstein Omits Sentence Stimuli Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Experiment has 4 conditions. 2 types of stimulus: Diagrams or Sentences 2 types of responses: Pointing or Vocal Response* Dependent variable = time to perform a task Next: Explain the different stimulus types and response modes Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Stimulus Types Goldstein's discussion of this study omits the Sentence stimuli. Only the diagram stimuli are discussed in the textbook. Explain Diagram Stimulus x Vocal Response Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Experiment has 4 conditions. 2 types of stimulus: Diagrams or Sentences 2 types of responses: Pointing or Vocal Response* Dependent variable = time to perform a task Next: Explain the different stimulus types and response modes Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Next Slide Stimulus Types Explain Diagram Stimulus x Vocal Response Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Image Scanning (Brooks, cont.)
Condition: Diagrammatic Stimulus & Vocal Response Memorize the figure. Then it is removed. Start your scan at the star and (mentally) move clockwise around the figure. Say "OUT" when you reach an outside corner.. Say "IN" when you reach an inside corner. Correct response: out, out, out, in, in, out, out, in, out, out, out Dependent variable: Response time (time to complete the task) Explain Diagram Stimulus with Pointing Response Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Image Scanning (cont.) Next: Diagrammatic stimulus combined with pointing response: Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Stimulus Type Previous Slide Next Slide Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Image Scanning (Brooks, cont.)
Condition: Diagrammatic Stimulus & Pointing Response Memorize the figure. Then it is removed. Same as before Start your scan at the * and (mentally) move clockwise around the figure. Same as before. Point to "Out" when you reach an outside corner. Point to "In" when you reach an inside corner.. Correct response: (See diagram) out, out, in, in, out, out, in, out, out, out Dependent variable: Response time (time to complete the task) Stimulus * Goldstein textbook shows the words "In" and "Out" lined up in straight columns, but the actual experimental task had irregular columns as shown on this slide. * Irregular columns increase the load on spatial working memory; straight columns would not require as much attention to spatial layout. Respond by pointing to letters on this sheet. Transition to Next Condition: Sentence Stimulus & Vocal Response Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Image Scanning (cont.) Explain sentence stimulus combined with vocal response: Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Stimulus Type Next Slide Condition: Sentence Stimulus & Vocal Response Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Image Scanning (Lee Brooks, cont.)
Sentence Stimulus A bird in hand is worth two in the bush. Condition: Sentence Stimulus & Vocal Response Memorize the sentence. Then it is removed. Now work from the beginning to the end of the sentence. Say "yes" each time you encounter a noun; say "no" when you encounter a word that is not a noun. Correct response: Dependent variable: Response time (time to complete the task) no, yes, no, yes, no, no, no, no, no, yes Transition to Condition with Sentence Stimulus & Pointing Response Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Image Scanning (cont.) Condition: Sentence Stimulus & Vocal Response Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Stimulus Type Next Slide Sentence Stimulus x Pointing Response Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Image Scanning (Lee Brooks, cont.)
Condition: Sentence Stimulus & Vocal Response Memorize the sentence. Then it is removed. Work from the beginning to the end of the sentence. Point to "yes" each time you encounter a noun; say "no" when you encounter a word that is not a noun.. Correct response: no, yes, no, yes, no, no, no, no, no, yes Sentence Stimulus: A bird in hand is worth two in the bush. Respond by pointing to letters on this sheet. Image Scanning Results Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Results: Image Scanning (Lee Brooks)
Stimulus Type Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Slower Faster Faster Slower Same Slide: Why is Pointing Slower than Vocal For Diagrams & Opposite for Sentences? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Results: Image Scanning (Lee Brooks)
Stimulus Type Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Why is diagram/pointing slower than diagram/vocal? Why is sentence/vocal slower than sentence/pointing? Slower Faster Faster Slower Discussion of Results Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Why is Diagram/Pointing Slower than Diagram/Vocal?
Stimulus Type Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Diagram/Pointing: The stimulus and response compete for a common cognitive resource, representation in VSP. Information processing bottleneck causes slower response. Diagram/Vocal: Stimulus & response use separate cognitive resources. No bottleneck. Slower Faster Why is sentence/vocal slower than sentence/pointing? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Why is Sentence/Vocal Slower than Sentence/Pointing?
Stimulus Type Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Sentence/Vocal: Again, stimulus and response compete for a common cognitive resource, representation in PL. Information processing bottleneck causes slower response. Sentence/Pointing: Stimulus & response use separate cognitive resources. No bottleneck. Faster Slower xxx Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Brooks' experiment supports the existence of a visuospatial sketch pad (VSP) because ....
If there were only one STM store (not separate PL & VSP), then the effect of the pointing response would be the same in the visuospatial task and the verbal task. Similarly for the effect of the verbal response. WM model assumes multiple memory stores – this lets WM predict conflicts between similar mental codes. The preceding experiment illustrates a basic principle: A response in one modality (verbal or spatial) will interfere more with a memory representation in the same modality than with a memory representation in a different modality. Spatial Rehearsal in Visual Working Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Spatial Rehearsal in Working Memory – What Is It?
Spatial Rehearsal – maintaining information about a location in working memory Delayed-Match-To-Sample (Monkey Study) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Delayed-Match-To-Sample Paradigm
(a) Cue (b) Delay (c) Reward Monkey sees where food is located. 10 second delay without visual input. Monkey reaches for food (or makes a mistake and reaches in the wrong place). Goldstein refers to this experimental task as the "delayed response task." See Figure 5.23, p. 143. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 Same Display – Single Cell Recordings Find Neural Correlates of (a), (b) & (c)

(a) Cue (b) Delay (c) Reward These results indicate importance of frontal lobes in maintaining spatial location information in VSP. Single-cell recording in monkey PFC shows a correlation between neural activity & the three stages of this task. Some neurons become active during the initial placement of the food. Some neuron become active only during the delay period (spatial rehearsal). Some neurons become active only when the response is made. Same Display – Monkeys with PFC Lesions Cannot Do This Task Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

(a) Cue (b) Delay (c) Reward Right Wrong These results indicate importance of frontal lobes in maintaining spatial location information in VSP. Monkeys with frontal lesions cannot do this task. Human infants cannot do task until about 12 months old. Multiple Location / Eye Movement Version of Delayed Response Task Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Monkey Performance on Delayed Eye-Movement Task
Same idea as the delayed-match-to-sample task (preceding slide), except that there are multiple locations to remember, and the response is an eye movement. See Goldstein, Figure 5.24 (p. 144). The monkey's task is to see the target, wait until a response is permitted, and then move his eyes to the target position. He gets rewarded with a squirt of apple juice. + Target Stimulus Eye Movement Response Delay Period + + Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 Single-Cell Recordings When Perceiving the Cue; Maintaining Attention; Responding

These results show that scientist has identified a neurons that are specific to spatial rehearsal. Note that the neuron is only active while the monkey is rehearsing a specific spatial location, not for other spatial locations. Funahashi, S., Bruce, C. J., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1993). Dorsolateral prefrontal lesions and oculomotor delayed- response performance: Evidence for mnemonic "scotomas." Journal of Neuroscience, 13, Neurons in DLPFC show sustained activity during delay period that is selective of the particular location to be remembered. Errors occur when this sustained activity fails to initiate or decays before end of delay period. Specific Lesions Cause Location-Specific Inability to Memory Loss Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

error Lesion Perception for these locations is not impaired. Memory for other locations is not impaired. This shows that a specific brain injury can prevent a monkey from thinking about a location. Lesions introduced into spatial memory areas cause location-specific inability to retain spatial information during the delay period. (Mnemonic scotoma). Perception for these locations is not impaired, i.e., this is not a blind spot. Memory for other locations is not impaired. Neural Mind Reading Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Neural Mind Reading Neural Mind Reading - guessing what someone was thinking from the neural response. Neural mind reading of perceptual processing: fMRI used to guess which pattern a subject is viewing (Kamitani & Tong, 2005) On each trial, the subject views the pattern on left or the pattern on the right: Psychologists who are not told which stimulus was used on a given trial attempt to guess the stimulus based on fMRI image that was taken during that trial. Psychologists achieve accuracy of 75% - 100% depending on the stimulus pair. Guessing rate would be 50%. Perception study: Subject sees a striped disk. Experimenter who does not know which disk the subject was looking at has to predict the orientation of the stripes based on an fMRI image of the subject's visual cortex. Visual working memory study: Subject sees both striped disks. The disks disappears. The subject is given a cue, 1 or 2, that tells him which disk to hold in memory. After an 11 second delay, the subject is shown a new striped disk Experimenter who does not know which disk the subject was looking at has to predict the orientation of the stripes based on an fMRI image of the subject's visual cortex. OR Neural Mind Reading of Activity in VSP Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Neural Mind Reading of Activity in VSP
fMRI used to guess which pattern a subject is retaining in VSP (Harrison & Tong, 2009) On each trial, the subject views a sequence of screens. Psychologists who are not told which target was retained in VSP on a given trial attempt to guess the target based on fMRI image that was taken during that trial. Psychologists achieve accuracy of 80% (average). fMRI successfully detected VSP rehearsal of the target image. 2 Target 1 Target 2 Remember This Target fMRI Recording Test Stimulus Clockwise or Counterclockwise? Visual working memory study: Subject sees both striped disks. The disks disappears. The subject is given a cue, 1 or 2, that tells him which disk to hold in memory. After an 11 second delay, the subject is shown a new striped disk. Note that every trial has the same stimuli up until the cue for the target (1 or 2). The fMRI differences are not caused by stimulus differences. Experimenter who does not know which disk the subject was looking at has to predict the orientation of the stripes based on an fMRI image of the subject's visual cortex. 2 Summary: Neuropsych Evidence for WM Components Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Neuropsychological Evidence for WM Components
There is a short-term memory store (VSP) that is specific for visual imagery and spatial representations. Evidence for “spatial rehearsal” in VSP Single-cell recordings in monkey Imaging studies of phonological loop: No one brain locus shows increased activity during rehearsal. Multiple brain areas that are associated with language show increased activity. Evidence from cognitive impairments Table Comparing PL to VSP - Overview of Layout Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Summary: Comparison Between PL & VSP
Phonological Loop Common Characteristics Differences Visuospatial Sketchpad Common Characteristics Differences Psych 355, Miyamoto, Win '13 Comparison of PL & VSP - END

Summary: Comparison Between PL & VSP
Phonological Loop Limited capacity Information is retained by an active process (verbal rehearsal) Information is highly accessible Multiple verbal tasks interfere with each other. PL processes linguistic information; Visuospatial Sketchpad Limited capacity Information is retained by an active process (manipulation of mental imagery) Information is highly accessible Multiple visual tasks interfere with each other. VSP processes visual imagery and spatial information. Verbal Task + Visual Task produces less interference than Verbal Task + Verbal Task or Visual Task + Visual Task Different areas of the brain show enhanced activity during verbal and visual/spatial rehearsal. END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

The Central Executive Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Instructor: John Miyamoto 04/27/2016: Lecture 05-3 Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.

Outline Brooks' Image Scanning Experiment - one last comment
The Central Executive Introduction to Long-Term Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16

Respond by pointing to letters on this sheet.
Response Sheet for the Pointing Response in Brooks' Image Scanning Experiment Condition: Diagrammatic Stimulus & Pointing Response Stimulus Response sheet as displayed in Goldstein Table 5.2 (p. 139) * Goldstein textbook shows the words "In" and "Out" lined up in straight columns, but the actual experimental task had irregular columns as shown on this slide. * Irregular columns increase the load on spatial working memory; straight columns would not require as much attention to spatial layout. Respond by pointing to letters on this sheet. Same Slide with Comment that the Response Sheet on Right is Correct Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Respond by pointing to letters on this sheet.
Response Sheet for the Pointing Response in Brooks' Image Scanning Experiment Condition: Diagrammatic Stimulus & Pointing Response Stimulus Response sheet as displayed in Goldstein Table 5.2 (p. 139) * Goldstein textbook shows the words "In" and "Out" lined up in straight columns, but the actual experimental task had irregular columns as shown on this slide. * Irregular columns increase the load on spatial working memory; straight columns would not require as much attention to spatial layout. The actual response sheet looked more like this. Why use the irregular display as on the right? Respond by pointing to letters on this sheet. Diagram for the Working Model - Point Out the Central Executive Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Phonological Loop (PL) Short-term storage Rehearsal Manipulation of verbal information Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP) Short-term storage of visual & spatial information Manipulation of visual images and spatial information. Basic Idea: At least two short-term memory stores, audition (language), visual/spatial. What justifies the hypothesis that there are separate memory stores? What justifies the assumption of an executive process. 3. Central Executive Directs activity within the PL or VSP. Coordinates activity between PL and VSP, and between these components and long-term memory (LTM). Arguments for a Central Executive Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Arguments for a Central Executive
Conceptual Argument: The brain somehow controls activity in WM. Let's give this controlling mental function a name: The Central Executive. Baddeley has called the central executive the "attention controller." Baddeley has also called the theory of the central executive "a ragbag." Evidence from clinical neuropsychology: A variety of pathologies have been found that relate to the functions of the central executive. These pathologies are often related to injury to the frontal lobe of the brain. Especially, to the prefrontal cortex. Frontal lobe damage Stroop Task & Frontal Lobe Syndrome Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Incompatible Condition
Stroop Task Name the color that the word is printed in. Ignore the meaning of the word. Compatible Condition BLUE GREEN RED BLACK GREEN RED etc Incompatible Condition BLUE GREEN RED BLACK GREEN RED etc Obviously, the incompatible condition is harder (slower). What does this have to do with executive processes? Frontal lobe damage – much slower in the incompatible condition. Why? – Stroop task requires self-control. Wisconsin Card Sort Task & Frontal Lobe Syndrome Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Wisconsin Card Sort Task
Match new card to the “correct” old card. Subject guesses which old car matches the new card. Subject gets feedback, "correct" or "incorrect." Subject gradually learns the rule for "correct" response. Criterion for “correct” old card keeps changing over blocks of trials. Old Cards New Card Block 1: “Correct” responses based on matching shape. Block 2: “Correct” responses based on matching color. fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Scene Stimuli Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Wisconsin Card Sort Task
Normal performance: Subjects can learn to switch the criterion for a new block of trials. Frontal lobe damage – normal performance on first block of trials, but they have great difficulty when the experimenter changes the rule. Block 1: “Correct” responses based on matching shape. Block 2: “Correct” responses based on matching color. Self-Control & Working Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Self Control & Working Memory (WM)
Hypothesis: WM & central executive monitors current plans & goals. WM monitors adherence to these plans and goals. If a task places extra load on WM, then adherence to plans and goals will suffer. Mention study of dietary self-control and WM fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information
Remember Faces Just Watch This experiment: Gazzaley, A., Cooney, J. W., Rissman, J., & D'Esposito, M. (2005). Top-down suppression deficit underlies working memory impairment in normal againg. Nature Neuroscience, 8, Gazzaley, A., Cooney, J. W., Rissman, J., & D'Esposito, M. (2005). Top-down suppression deficit underlies working memory impairment in normal againg. Nature Neuroscience, 8, fMRI measurement of brain activity in left parahippocampal/lingual gyrus (overlaps the parahippocampal place area/PPA). Specialized for place perception. Definition of Face-Relevant & Passive Viewing Conditions Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Remember Faces Just Watch This experiment: Gazzaley, A., Cooney, J. W., Rissman, J., & D'Esposito, M. (2005). Top-down suppression deficit underlies working memory impairment in normal againg. Nature Neuroscience, 8, Face Relevant Condition: Remember faces; ignore scenes. Later tested for recognition of a face. Passive Condition: Simply view the stimuli. Later tested on whether the arrow points left or right. Definition of Good Suppressors & Poor Suppressors Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Lower Higher Lower Higher Remember Faces Just Watch Good Suppressors – People whose brain activity was less when the scene was irrelevant than when scene was passively viewed. Same Slide - Add Definition of Poor Suppressors Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Higher Lower Higher Lower Remember Faces Just Watch Good Suppressors – People whose brain activity was less when the scene was irrelevant than when scene was passively viewed. Poor Suppressors – People whose brain activity was greater when the scene was irrelevant than when scene was passively viewed. Results of fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Scene Stimuli Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Results of fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information
Good suppressors are better at recognizing faces. Proposed explanation: Good suppressors have better central executive function; they are better at inhibiting irrelevant information. Summary re Frontal Lobe Syndrome & Central Executive Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Frontal Lobe Damage & Impaired Functioning of the Central Executive
Central executive controls attention to relevant information and responses.Inhibits irrelevant information and responses. Frontal lobe damage leads to difficulty inhibiting irrelevant information and responses. Stroop task, Wisconsin card sort task, face recognition with irrelevant scenes: To respond correctly, you need to inhibit a response. People with frontal lobe damage have difficulty inhibiting tempting wrong responses. People differ in how effective they are at inhibiting irrelevant information. Return to Baddeley’s List of Central Executive Functions Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Baddeley’s List of Functions of the Central Executive
Only partially understood. Very active area of current research. Alan Baddeley – chief developer of working memory theory (Baddeley calls the theory of the central executive a "ragbag") Controlling and allocating attention. Coordinating current activity of working memory with goals. Task switching. Multi-tasking. Selection and launching of responses. Inhibiting associated but inappropriate responses. Controlling the interface between STM stores and LTM, especially LTM search & retrieval. Chunking Introduction to Long-Term Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Wednesday, April 27, 2016: The Lecture Ended Here

Introduction to Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Outline - Introduction to Long-Term Memory
Reminder: Distinction between STM and LTM Different types of long-term memory Explicit versus implicit memory (declarative vs non-declarative memory) Episodic versus semantic memory Procedural memory Associative memory HM – a famous clinical case; Illustrates many important aspects of memory Evidence for distinction between STM & LTM Evidence for distinction between episodic and semantic memory Evidence for distinction between explicit memory and implicit memory. Picture Showing the STM/LTM Distinction Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Figure 6.1: Example of the STM/LTM Distinction
Diagram of Modal Memory Model – Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation
Sensory Store Short-Term Store Long-Term Store Retrieval Encoding External World Control Processes Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation This diagram may be misleading because it suggests that information must pass through STM to get to LTM. Not everyone agrees with this assumption. Encoding – creating an LTM out of currently processed information. Retrieval – bringing information that is stored in LTM back to STM Consolidation - creating a strong LTM by repeatedly retrieving and manipulating an LTM; and by associating it with other memories. List of Functions That Are Included in LTM Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

LTM Includes ..... Important information about the self and events in the world, but also, ... Trivial information about what has happened in the recent past, “Semantic” knowledge, e.g., what is an apple, a pencil; which is bigger, a mouse or a moose; etc. How to do things: Tie your shoes, drive a car, dial a phone number, cook a meal, .... Learned associations that are not explicit, e.g., the atmosphere of a dentist’s office makes you feel apprehensive. Diagram Showing the Major Components of the LTM System Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Different Types of Long-Term Memory
Figure Different Types of Long-Term Memory Declarative memory (explicit memory) – facts, knowledge, images Non-declarative memory (implicit memory) – non-conscious memory that is expressed through change in behavior; it doesn’t necessarily include conscious recollection. Intro to HM Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

HM – A Famous Clinical Case
HM – initials of a man See links to his biography on the Psych 355 website. Intractable epilepsy. August 25, 1953: Medial temporal lobes (left and right) were surgically resectioned to treat his epilepsy. Removal of the hippocampus. Following surgery, HM had much milder symptoms of epilepsy, but ... ... he was found to have severe problems with memory. . Where is the Hippocampus? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Where is the Hippocampus?
HM underwent bilateral removal of much of the hippocampus, amygdala and surrounding medial temporal cortices. This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers website ( for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN ). Amygdala Hippocampus Schematic head facing up. Hippocampi are in red. HM’s Memory Problem Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

HM’s Memory Post-Surgery
HM could carry on a conversation, understand current situations. Severely impaired memory for any events occurring after brain injury. (Severe anterograde amnesia) Some impaired memory for events occurring before injury. (Some retrograde amnesia) Could learn new skills like sewing. Could learn some new semantic information, e.g., his brain surgery was in 1953, but he learned that there was a president named Kennedy who was assassinated. Diagram Showing Multiple Memory Systems Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Episodic & Semantic Memory
HUMAN MEMORY SHORT-TERM MEMORY Memory Terminology – Including Types of Amnesia Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Some Memory Terminology
Discussed on Earlier Slide Explicit memory (declarative memory) Episodic memory - memory for personal experiences Semantic memory - memory for facts Implicit memory (non-declarative memory) Priming – exposure to one stimulus can affect ability to perform a cognitive task. Procedural memory - memory for how to do things, e.g., how to type at a computer. Associative and non-associative learning Amnesia Anterograde – amnesia for events occurring after brain injury. Retrograde - amnesia for events occurring before brain injury. Back to HM’s Memory Problems Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

HM's Memory Problems Anterograde amnesia – very severe; he could not form new permanent episodic memories. Retrograde amnesia – very severe for preceding 4 days; some impairment up to 11 year preceding. Retrograde amnesia was temporally graded, i.e., less amnesia as you go farther into the past Declarative memory – severely impaired Episodic memory – very severe Semantic memory – severe but he could still learn some new general facts. Procedural memory – relatively intact HM learned to sew. HM learned to draw mirror images. Diagram Showing that HM’s Memory Problem Pertains to Encoding Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

HM's Explicit Memory Problem
Sensory Store Short-Term Store Long-Term Store Retrieval Encoding External World Control Processes (Remember that this diagram is an over-simplification) HM's worst problem was encoding from STM (WM) to LTM. Impaired transfer from STM to LTM. STM (WM) was still functioning because he could understand the current situation. Note: This diagram omits the role of the hippocampus in consolidation (probably HM had difficulty with consolidation as well as encoding). STM/LTM Distinction and the Serial Position Curve Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

How Do We Know that STM and LTM Involve Different Brain Mechanisms?
Evidence from the Serial Position Curve: Subject views list of 20 words, one word at a time. Each word is presented for 2 seconds. After viewing the list, subject attempts to recall as many words as possible. Serial Position % Recalled Figure 6.3 Serial Position Curve Curve shows the percentage of times a word in each position was recalled correctly. Interpretation of Standard Result for Serial Position Curve Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Interpretation of Standard Result for Serial Position Curve
Claims (to be substantiated in subsequent slides) Primacy effect is due to transfer to LTM. Recency effect due to words retained in STM. Standard result for serial position curve is evidence for STM/LTM distinction. Serial Position % Recalled Figure 6.3 Serial Position Curve Recency Effect Primacy Effect How to Prove that Primacy is Due to Transfer to LTM? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

How to Prove Primacy Effect Is Due to Transfer to LTM?
Rundus (1971) presented words at the rate of 1 word per 5 seconds. 20 words in the list. Subjects were instructed to rehearse words aloud. What Subject Sees What Subject Says car car, car, car, ... stone car, stone, car, stone, car, ... top car, stone, top, car, stone, top, ... This study has 2 dependent variables: Frequency of recall for words in each position Number of rehearsals for words in each position Subjects were not told which words to rehearse (repeat). They were simply told to repeat whichever words they felt like repeating aloud. Results for Rundus Experiment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Results for Rundus (1971) Study
Figure 6.4 Effect of Overt Rehearsal % Recalled Serial Position Number of Rehearsals Figure 6.4 to the right: Red solid line: Serial position curve (standard result) Blue dotted line: Number of times a word in each position was rehearsed. Blue dotted line correlates perfectly with the serial position curve (red dotted line) except for the recency effect. This supports claim that primacy effect is due to transfer to LTM. Subjects were not told which words to rehearse (repeat). They were simply told to repeat whichever words they felt like repeating aloud. How to Prove that Recency Effect Due to Retention in STM? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

How to Prove Recency Effect Is Due to Retention in STM?
Dashed line shows effect of counting backwards by 3’s for 30 seconds after presentation of list. Counting backwards prevents retention of words in STM, so recency effect disappears. This result supports the hypothesis that the recency effect is due to retention of recent words in STM. Glanzer, M., & Cunitz, A. R. (1966). Two storage mechanisms in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5, Figure 6.5 Effect of Counting Backwards % Recalled Glanzer, M., & Cunitz, A. R. (1966). Two storage mechanisms in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5, No recency effect Serial Position How We Know that STM & LTM Are Different Mechanisms - Summary Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Neuropsych evidence of double dissociation between STM & LTM.
How Do We Know that STM and LTM Involve Different Brain Mechanisms? (Conclusion) Assumption of separate STM & LTM explains facts about the serial position curve. Neuropsych evidence of double dissociation between STM & LTM. HM & Clive Wearing had normal memory span, e.g., 5-8 digits KF had reduced memory span, e.g., about 2 digits. LTM was ok. STM LTM HM, Clive Wearing OK Impaired K. F. K.F. suffered to parietal lobe in a motorbike accident. He had digit span of 2 (typical digit span is digits). His serial position curve had a reduced recency effect (probably due to reduced use of rehearsal during the memory task). LTM was ok. Surprise Memory Test Items Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Episodic vs Semantic Memories Explicit vs Implicit Memory

Outline What is the Evidence for the Distinction Between STM and LTM? Episodic Memory and Semantic Memory What Builds Strong Memories? Lecture probably ends here How Do We Know that STM & LTM Are Different Systems? Serial Position Curve Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16

How Do We Know that STM and LTM Involve Different Brain Mechanisms?
Assumption of separate STM & LTM explains facts about the serial position curve. K.F. suffered to parietal lobe in a motorbike accident. He had digit span of 2 (typical digit span is digits). His serial position curve had a reduced recency effect (probably due to reduced use of rehearsal during the memory task). LTM was ok. Show Exp Results for Primacy & Recency Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

STM/LTM Distinction Explains Primacy & Recency
Figure 6.4 Effect of Overt Rehearsal % Recalled Serial Position Number of Rehearsals Figure 6.5 Effect of Counting Backwards % Recalled No recency effect Subjects were not told which words to rehearse (repeat). They were simply told to repeat whichever words they felt like repeating aloud. Serial Position Figure 6.5: Dashed line shows effect of counting backwards by 3’s for 30 seconds after presentation of list. Counting backwards prevents retention of words in STM, so recency effect disappears. Figure 6.4: Red solid line: Serial position curve Blue dotted line: Number of times a word in each position was rehearsed. How to Prove that Recency Effect Due to Retention in STM? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Neuropsych evidence of double dissociation between STM & LTM.
How Do We Know that STM and LTM Involve Different Brain Mechanisms? (Conclusion) Assumption of separate STM & LTM explains facts about the serial position curve. Neuropsych evidence of double dissociation between STM & LTM. HM & Clive Wearing had normal memory span, e.g., 5-8 digits KF had reduced memory span, e.g., about 2 digits. LTM was ok. Bottom Line: Most but not all cognitive psychologists accept that STM (WM) and LTM are different mechanisms. STM LTM HM, Clive Wearing OK Impaired K. F. K.F. suffered to parietal lobe in a motorbike accident. He had digit span of 2 (typical digit span is digits). His serial position curve had a reduced recency effect (probably due to reduced use of rehearsal during the memory task). LTM was ok. Episodic vs Semantic Memory + Surprise Memory Test Items Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Next: Episodic Memory vs Semantic Memory, But First, an Example (to be discussed later)
ELK SHIP PEAR Later in lecture: Give recall and recognition tests for these words. Use this to illustrate why memory tests are tests of episodic memory. Diagram of Memory Systems Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Episodic vs Semantic Memory – Some Examples Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Episodic versus Semantic Memory – Some Examples
"I remember parking my car this morning." "I remember the big earthquake in 1963." "I remember that wolves are bigger than coyotes." "I remember that Olympia is south of Seattle." "I remember Beth's telling me to be at the meeting on Thursday." “Barack Obama won the 2012 presidential election." A subject in a memory experiment says, "I remember seeing the word, 'watermelon' on the list you showed me." E E S S E maybe E, maybe S maybe both E Double Dissociations Between Episodic & Semantic Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Recall versus Recognition Tests
Recall Test: Can you remember the words that I displayed a few minutes ago? Write them down. Recognition Test: Which of these words were displayed at the beginning of this lecture? Write “yes” or “no” depending on whether a word was or was not displayed at the beginning of the lecture. BOAT PEAR DEER etc. Same Slide + Question: Do These Tests Involve Episodic or Semantic Memory? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Memory Performance on a Memory Test – Episodic or Semantic?
Recall Test: Can you remember the words that I displayed at the beginning of the lecture? Write them down. Recognition Test: Which of these words were displayed at the beginning of this lecture? Write “yes” or “no” depending on whether a word was or was not displayed at the beginning of the lecture. Is your memory performance on these tests an example of episodic memory or semantic memory? Main Point: Recall and recognition tests require episodic memory because they require the subject to remember a specific previous experience. Note that it requires semantic memory to answer, e.g., what is a ship? Is a pear a fruit? But these were not the questions that were asked. Main Point: Recall and recognition tests require episodic memory because they require the subject to remember a specific previous experience (was this item displayed during an earlier part of this experiment?). Note that it requires semantic memory to answer, e.g., what is a ship? Or is a pear a fruit? But these are not the questions that were asked. You are asked about a particular experience, exposure to some memory items and your memory for this exposure is part of your episodic memory. Double Dissociations Btwn Episodic & Semantic Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Double Dissociations Between Episodic & Semantic Memory
KC, HM OK Impaired Italian woman (KF) This table is similar to, but not quite identical to Table 6.4, p. 163, in Goldstein 4th ed. Semantic memory intact; episodic memory impaired. Alzheimer's patient with intact semantic memory, and severely impaired episodic memory. Patient KC has injury to hippocampus. Lost his episodic memory, but retains semantic memory. Semantic memory impaired; episodic memory intact KF is a 44 year old Italian woman who had encephalitis. Impaired semantic memory, e.g., could not remember meaning of words on a shopping list; Intact episodic memory, e.g., could remember what she had done Patient KC suffered injury to hippocampus & surrounding structures; due to motorcycle accident at age 30. He cannot remember past experiences, e.g., the experience of hearing that his brother had died, but he retains semantic memory, e.g., he remembers that his brother had died. KF lost ability to remember facts, e.g., she couldn’t recognize famous people, she couldn’t remember the meanings of words on a shopping list or where things were in the store, who is Beethoven, etc. She could still remember experiences, e.g., what she had done during the days, things that had happened in past weeks or months, etc. fMRI Evidence for Episodic/Semantic Distinction Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Yellow: Subject is recalling experiences (episodic).
How Do We Know that Episodic and Semantic Memory Are Different Memory Systems? Figure 6.8 Yellow: Subject is recalling experiences (episodic). Blue: Subject is recalling facts (semantic). Neuropsychological (fMRI) evidence for double dissociations between episodic & semantic memory. Pattern of activation is different while recalling episodic & semantic memories. It should be noted that there is overlap between episodic & semantic memories. Back to Diagram of Memory Systems – Episodic Memory versus Priming Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Tuesday, May 03, 2016: The Lecture Ended Here

Explicit vs Implicit Memory then .... What Builds Strong Memories?

First, an Example (to be discussed later)
ELK SHIP PEAR Later in lecture: Give recall and recognition tests for these words. Use this to illustrate why memory tests are tests of episodic memory. Diagram of Memory Systems Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Outline Episodic Memory and Semantic Memory Explicit and Implicit Memory What Builds Strong Memories? Lecture probably ends here Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16 Diagram of Memory Systems - Episodic Memory vs Priming

HUMAN MEMORY SHORT-TERM MEMORY Next Topic Word Fragment Completion Task - Simplified Version Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Word Fragment Completion Task (Simplified Version)
Fill in the blanks to make a word: _NTE_OPE ANTELOPE Fill in the blanks to make a word: _ATER___LON WATERMELON Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16 Word Fragment Completion Task - Full Experimental Design

Word Fragment Completion (WFC) Task
Stage 1: Study List A Study List B apple dog pear moose watermelon antelope Stage 2 Recall List A Recall List B (explicit) some forget "watermelon" some forget "antelope" Stage 3 WFC Task WFC Task (implicit) _ater_ _lon _ater_ _lon _nte_ope _nte_ope Word Fragment Completion (WFC) Task: Fill in the blanks to make a word. Goldstein 4th ed. calls this the "word completion task. Results for Word Fragment Completion Task Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Results for WFC Stage 1: Study List A Study List B apple dog pear moose watermelon antelope Stage 2 Recall List A Recall List B (explicit) some forget "watermelon" some forget "antelope" Stage 3 WFC Task WFC Task (implicit) _ater_ _lon _ater_ _lon _nte_ope _nte_ope better worse worse better Word Fragment Completion Task - SUMMARY Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Word Fragment Completion (WFC) - Summary
WFC performance is better for words that were studied at Stage 1 but forgotten at Stage 2, than for words that were never studied at Stage 1. Subjects have implicit memory for words studied at Stage 1 even if they cannot recall them at Stage 2. WFC is an example of priming. WFC & Recall in Amnesics & Normal Controls Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

WFC & Recall for Amnesics & Normal Controls
Graf, P., Shimamura, A. P., & Squire, L. R. (1985). Subjects Amnesics (anterograde): 8 Korsakoff patients 2 non-Korsakoff, 8 Non-Amnesic Alcoholics 8 Non-Amnesic, Non-Alcoholic Subject groups were similar in age. INPT ALC AMN Non-Amnesic Non-Alcoholics Non-Amnesic Alcoholics Amnesics Experimental Procedure & Results Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

WFC & Recall for Amnesics & Normal Controls
Graf, P., Shimamura, A. P., & Squire, L. R. (1985). Subject read lists of words. For each list, ... Subjects rated the words on a list on scale from 1 = “like extremely” to 5 = “dislike extremely”. 2) Recall Trials: Subjects attempted to recall the words. 3) Implicit Memory Trials: Subjects performed WFC with the words. Results: Amnesics do just as well as other groups on implicit memory (WFC) but do much worse on explicit memory (recall). Explicit Memory  Implicit Memory INPT ALC AMN Recall trials and implicit memory trials follow immediately after subjects complete the ratings of liking. Warrington & Weiskrantz: Korsakoff Patients Identify Incomplete Figures Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Related Study by Warrington & Weiskrantz (Figures 6.11 & 6.12)
Errors Day of Training Patients lack episodic memory of studying the words, but implicit memory task (WFC) shows that they retain information from the study list. Korsakoff patients were asked to identify incomplete pictures (pictures with parts of the objects erased). Patients were not asked: Have you seen this before? (explicit memory test) Patients were asked: What is it? (implicit memory test) Over three days, the patients improved without remembering previous training or exposure to the stimuli. Explicit & Implicit Memory Have Different Forgetting Curves Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Episodic & Implicit Memory Show Different Patterns of Forgetting
1 hour days % Correct Recognition WFC Tulving et al. (1982) studied recognition and WFC among normal subjects. Graph to right shows that recognition (episodic memory) and WFC (implicit memory) show different patterns of forgetting over time. Bottom Line: Explicit (declarative) memory & implicit memory are based on different memory systems. Diagram of Memory Systems - Reminder that Most Memories Have Explicit & Implicit Aspects Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Explicit vs Implicit Memory
HUMAN MEMORY SHORT-TERM MEMORY Cognition experiments can target (measure) explicit or implicit memory, but actual memories can have both explicit and implicit aspects to the memory What Builds Strong Memories? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What Builds Strong Memories?
What are effective study habits? Students often want to know the answer to this question. Some experiences are remembered easily and for a long time. Other experiences are forgotten. What is the difference? Some scientific topics are remembered for a long time. Other topics are forgotten quickly. What is the difference? * Red polygon outlines the main memory systems involved in this question. Modal Model of Memory - Reminder of the Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Sensory Store Short-Term Store Long-Term Store Retrieval Encoding External World Control Processes Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation * How to build stronger memories? Encoding – creating an LTM out of currently processed information Retrieval – bringing information that is stored in LTM back to STM Consolidation – a process that strengthens memories over time. Consolidation increases the chances for retrieval. In General, What Makes Memories Memorable? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

In General, What Makes Memories Memorable?
Mere repetition (memorization) is ineffective. What is effective? Elaboration & Association Generation of Related Thoughts Creating Related Mental Images Repeated Retrievals, Reprocessing, & Re-encoding Develop Retrieval Strategies and Retrieval Cues that Will Be Useful on Future Occasions Next Generation Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Generation Effect Anti-Passive Learning
Generation effect: You are more likely to remember information that you retrieve or generate (during study) than information that you simply receive and attempt to “memorize.” Intuitive idea: Mental activity at time of study promotes future recall. Any ideas that you generate during study can serve as retrieval cues when you need to remember the information later. Generation Effect Anti-Passive Learning Mantyla Experiment: Self-Generated Stronger than Other-Generated Cues Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Generating Semantic Associates Creates Strong Retrieval Cues
Mantyla (1986): Purpose of Study: to show that semantic associates that were present at study are effective cues for recall; self-generated cues are the more effective cues for recall than are cues that someone else generates. Memory Task: Subjects study words. Later they are asked to recall them. 3 experimental conditions (next slide) Mantyla (1986): Experimental Design Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Mantyla (1986): Experimental Design
Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall) Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test At study, see 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject along with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the target word. (cued recall) Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test At study, subject just sees the target words. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word. Repeat this Slide with Examples of Condition 1 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall) Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test At study, see 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject along with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the target word. (cued recall) Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test At study, subject just sees the target words. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word. List 3 words that are related to “snow”: What word is related to: “white”, “cold”, “wet”? Uh – “white”, “cold”, “wet” Repeat this Slide with Examples of Condition 2 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall) Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test At study, see 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject along with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the target word. (cued recall) Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test At study, subject just sees the target words. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word. The word “snow” is related to: “white”, “cold”, “wet". What word is related to: “white”, “cold”, “wet”? Repeat this Slide with Examples of Condition 3 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall) Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test At study, see 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject along with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the target word. (cued recall) Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test At study, subject just sees the target words. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word. Remember the word: “snow” What word is related to: “white”, “cold”, “wet”? Same Slide with Only Summary Descriptions Emphasized Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall) Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test At study, see 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject along with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the target word. (cued recall) Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test At study, subject just sees the target words. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word. Results Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Goldstein, Figure 7.9. Results from Mantyla (1986)
Condition 1: 90% correct Condition 2: 55% correct Condition 3: 17% correct Condition 1: Generate cues; use cues Condition 2 See cues; use cues Condition 3 See no cues; use cues SUMMARY Cues are helpful at time of test. Cues that you have studied are even more helpful at time of test. Cues that you generated yourself are even more helpful at time of test. Why is this the pattern of memory results? Cues promote retrieval by means of associative connections. (Obvious) Generating our own cues helps us learn to access meaningful relationships. Goldstein, Figure 7.9. Results from Mantyla (1986) Self-Reference Has Mnemonic Efficacy Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Self-Reference Has Mnemonic Efficacy
Principle: Self-referential relations are remembered better than items without self-referential relations. "serene" - Does this word rhyme with "siren"? "serene" - Does this word describe you? Ask yourself: Is this information related to me in any way? Does this information remind me of anything that has happened to me? weaker at test stronger at test Mental Imagery Enhances Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Mental Imagery Enhances Memory
Principle: In general, images are remembered better than words. Picture Superiority Effect: "tiger" versus Experimental Demonstration of the Efficacy of Mental Images on memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Mental Imagery Enhances Memory (Bower & Winzenz (1970)
Repetition Group: Repeated a word pair, e.g., "boat-tree- boat-tree-boat-tree-...." Imagery Group: Form a mental image in which the two objects are interacting. Both groups had 5 seconds per word pair. Results: Imagery group remembered over twice as much in cued recall. Figure 7.3 Experiment re Image Interaction & Bizarreness Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Effects of Image Interaction & Bizarreness
Interacting Non-Interacting Wollen, K. A., Weber, A., & Lowry, D. H. (1972). Bizarreness versus interaction of mental images as determinants of learning. Cognitive Psychology, 3, Subjects had to learn word pairs that were accompanied by pictures. E.g., PIANO + CIGAR Bizarre Not Bizarre Pictures were either non-bizarre or bizarre. Pictures were either non-interacting or interacting. Results for Interaction & Bizarreness Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Results for Image Interaction & Bizarreness
Interacting Non-Interacting Wollen, K. A., Weber, A., & Lowry, D. H. (1972). Bizarreness versus interac-tion of mental images as determinants of learning. Cognitive Psychology, 3, Memory was better for interacting images than non-interacting images. Bizarreness had no effect. Bizarre Not Bizarre Evidence suggests that in general, interacting images are a power mnemonic tool. Why Does Generating Related Ideas Promote Future Memory? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Why Does Generating Ideas Improve Memory?
Ideas that you generate serve as retrieval cues. Ideas that you generate create associations with other ideas. Links to these ideas serve as retrieval cues The more links you have to a concept, the more ways you have to access this information. Mental imagery creates stronger retrieval cues than verbal descriptions. The mental activity of discovering associations and relationships is itself a skill and a habit. Using this skill improves this skill. Using this habit strenthens this habit. Class Problem: Suggest Ways to Strengthen a Memory About the Hippocampus - END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Class Exercise: Suggest How to Commit This to Memory
COMMIT TO MEMORY: “Memories are not stored in the hippocampus, but the hippocampus is critical for packaging memories and for moving them into storage.” (Metaphor) Generate some images or analogies that describe the functioning of the hippocampus. Hippocampus is like a records clerk in a business. Hippocampus is like a antique collector who has a very small shop with a very large warehouse. . * “hippo” – Greek for horse; “kampus” – Greek for monster; “hippokampus” – Greek for sea horse. The hippocampus is shaped like a sea horse. END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Memorization is NOT a Good Learning Strategy Then, ....
Testing, Spacing and Organization Promote Future Retrieval Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Instructor: John Miyamoto 05/04/2016: Lecture 06-3 Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.

Outline Memorization is NOT an effective learning strategy "memorization" = "maintenance rehearsal" (psychologists' word) Depth of Processing Hypothesis Testing effect - testing enhances future recall of tested material The Spacing Effect Organizing the material strengthens memory for the memory Illusions of Learning Lecture probably ends here Diagram for the Modal Model of Memory - Emphasis on Processes that Strenghen Memories Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16

Sensory Store Short-Term Store Long-Term Store Retrieval Encoding External World Control Processes Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation * How to build stronger memories? Encoding – creating an LTM out of currently processed information Retrieval – bringing information that is stored in LTM back to STM Consolidation – a process that strengthens memories over time. Consolidation increases the chances for retrieval. In General, What Makes Memories Memorable? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Next Mere repetition (memorization) is ineffective. What is effective? Elaboration & Association Generation of Related Thoughts Creating Related Mental Images Repeated Retrievals, Reprocessing, & Re-encoding Develop Retrieval Strategies and Retrieval Cues that Will Be Useful on Future Occasions Generation Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Maintenance Rehearsal & Elaborative Rehearsal
Maintenance Rehearsal – repeating to-be-remembered information over and over (phonological loop) "Memorization" = Maintenance Rehearsal (cognitive psychologist's term) Elaborative rehearsal – drawing connections between to-be-remembered information and other information, especially connections based on meaning. Memory for meaning Form associations between what you want to remember and other ideas, facts, concepts, etc. Create retrieval cues. Mere Repetition is Ineffective for Strengthening Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Mere Repetition Is Ineffective for Strengthening Memory
Craik & Watkins (1973): The amount of maintenance rehearsal has very little influence on the likelihood of correct recall. Subjects heard sequences of words. Subjects task was to remember the most recent word in the list that started with a particular letter, e.g., "p". Example: Study the following list of words: Correct answer = "post" last "p" word Continue Craik & Watkins (1973) – Differences in Number of Rehearsals Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Mere Repetition Is Ineffective for Strengthening Memory
last "p" word At end of experiment, subjects were asked to recall as many of the words on the lists as they could remember. Different "p" words are rehearsed a different number of times. E.g., "peach" is rehearsed more than "pin" because "peach" has 4 non-"p" words following it and "pin" has only 2 non-"p" words following it. Finding: Likelihood of recall was unrelated to number of intervening non-p words, i.e., unrelated to the amount of maintenance rehearsal. Memorization is an ineffective learning strategy. Maintenance vs Elaborative Rehearsal – Depth of Processing Hypothesis Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Depth of Processing (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)
Depth of Processing Hypothesis: Depth of processing at time of study is the main determinant of ease of remembering. Processing of to-be-remembered material proceeds from shallow features to deeper content. SHALLOW Letters in words Sound of words DEEP Meaning Relationship to other knowledge Another way to state the depth of processing hypothesis: Speed of processing is slower but strength of memory trace is greater when encoding occurs at deeper levels of processing. Test of Depth of Processing Hypothesis Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Craik & Tulving Test of Depth of Processing Hypothesis
Experimental Paradigm: On each trial, the subject sees a word and answers a question about the word. Condition 1 (very shallow processing): Example: Does the word “dungeon” contain the letter “t”? Condition 2 (moderately shallow processing): Example: Does the word “dungeon" rhyme with “engine"? Condition 3 (deeper processing of meaning): Example: Does the word “dungeon" fit into the sentence, “The prisoner was kept in a ______ for two years."? Later the subject is asked to recall the words, and the percentage of correct recall is recorded. Results re Experiment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Results re Depth of Processing Hypothesis
Finding: Reaction time is slower but percent correct recall gets better as processing gets deeper and deeper. Recall improves with deeper processing during study. Result supports depth of processing hypothesis. Confounding of Depth of Processing with Encoding Duration Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Confounding of Depth of Processing with Duration of Encoding
Two confounded aspects of deep processing: Deep processing takes longer than shallow processing (in general). Deep processing emphasizes the meaning of the to-be-learned material and its relationship to other pieces of knowledge. Question: Does deeper processing produce better memory because it takes longer or because it emphasizes meaning? Answer: Clever experiments demonstrate it is the type of processing (meaning-based) and not the duration of processing that creates the stronger memory. Outline of Effective Study Habits - END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Exception to Depth of Processing Hypothesis: Transfer-Appropriate-Processing
Exception: Deeper processing at time of study is less effective if the memory test is based on cues that are not meaning related. Example: Transfer Appropriate Processing Shallow Study Task: Does the word “dungeon” contain the letter “t”? Moderate Study Task: Does the word “dungeon" rhyme with “engine"? Deeper Study Task: Does the word “dungeon" fit into the sentence, “The prisoner was kept in a ______ for two years."? Test: Can you recall a word that rhymes with “luncheon”? Result: Moderate study task produces best performance on this test because it focuses on word sound, i.e., the moderate study task requires transfer appropriate processing. Usually, in everyday life, we need to retrieve information that is meaningfully related to a current problem, so focusing on meaning during study is usually more appropriate to the context of retrieval. What Makes Strong Memories? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Mere repetition (memorization) is ineffective. What is effective? Elaboration & Association Generation of Related Thoughts Creating Related Mental Images Repeated Retrievals, Reprocessing, & Re-encoding Develop Retrieval Strategies and Retrieval Cues that Will Be Useful on Future Occasions The Testing Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

The Testing Effect Testing memories strengthens memories, i.e., it increases the likelihood of retrieving the memories at a later time. It is not necessary to give the student feedback whether his or her answers are correct. This is true regardless of whether the subject succeeds in retrieving the information at the time of testing. Roediger & Karpicke Experiment that Demonstrates the Testing Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Testing Improves Later Retrieval
Recall test Recall test Delay Testing Group Read passage Solve math problems 5 minutes 2 days, or 1 week 7 minutes 7 minutes 2 minutes Reread passage Recall test Delay Rereading Group Figure Roediger & Karpicke (2006) Read prose passage for 7 minutes (study) Solve math problem for 2 minutes. (take a break) Testing group: Take a recall test for 7 minutes. Rereading group: Reread passage for 7 minutes. Both groups get a recall test following a delay (5 minutes; 2 days; 1 week) Results from Roediger & Karpicke Study Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Results for the Roediger & Karpicke (2006) Study
5 minutes days week Delay Rereading Testing Proportion of Idea Units Recalled Rereading produces better memory after 5 minute delay. Testing produces better memory after 2 day & 1 week delay. The superiority of recall test increases over time. Why does the recall test produce better memory (more successful retrieval) after the longer delays? Why Does Testing Have Greater Advantage at Longer Delays? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Why Does Testing Improve Memory at Longer Delays?
5 minutes days week Delay Rereading Testing Proportion of Idea Units Recalled Explanation 1: Rereading the material strengthens the episodic memory for the experience of studying the target material. Testing strengthens the semantic memory for associations between the target material and other knowledge. Testing also strengthen priming between associated ideas and the target material. Episodic memories lose strength faster than implicit memories and semantic memories. General idea: Practice makes perfect. If you want to remember something at a future time, you need to practice remembering. A full explanation of why testing creates a longer lasting memory requires a discussion of consolidation. Testing promotes consolidation of a memory. Rereading temporarily strengthens the memory but does not promote consolidation to the same degree. Typical mistake: People think that the primary goal of study is to encode the information. Explanation 2 for the Same Results Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Why Does Testing Improve Memory at Longer Delays?
5 minutes days week Delay Rereading Testing Proportion of Idea Units Recalled Explanation 2: Retrieval is a mental skill – it improves with practice. Attempting to retrieve information X helps you develop better retrieval cues for X. Attempting to retrieve information X will consolidate the memory of X. General idea: Practice makes perfect. If you want to remember something at a future time, you need to practice remembering. A full explanation of why testing creates a longer lasting memory requires a discussion of consolidation. Testing promotes consolidation of a memory. Rereading temporarily strengthens the memory but does not promote consolidation to the same degree. Typical mistake: People think that the primary goal of study is to encode the information. Organizing the Material Increases the Chance of Future Retrieval Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Goldstein’s Recommendations for Effective Study Habits
Goldstein's recommendations are largely the same as the one's I listed earlier in this lecture. These recommendations largely orginate in the work of Robert Bjork, a UCLA cognitive psychologist. Elaborate on the given information Generate associations to other knowledge Test yourself without an answer key in front of you Organize the material in a meaningful way Take breaks Beware of "illusions of learning" NOTICE: Memorization is NOT a recommended study habit! Next Organization Promotes Stronger Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Organizing the Information at Encoding Improves Later Retrieval
Principle: It is easier to remember information that is organized in some reasonable way than information that is disorganized. Bower, Clark, Lesgold, & Winzenz (1969): Words that are organized into categories are remembered much better than the same words in a disorganized list. Tulving (1962): Given unorganized lists of words, subjects who create their own organization of the words do best at recalling the words. Why Organizing Promotes Future Retrieval Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Why Organization Promotes Future Retrieval
Professors will tell you: “Try to understand the material! Don’t just memorize it.” The effort to organize the material has mnemonic value because: Organizing the material causes the subject to chunk the material. It is easier to retrieve a few chunks than many separate pieces of information. Organizing the material generally requires linking it to other knowledge. These links serve as retrieval cues. Generating your own organization is more beneficial than having someone else give you an organization. The Spacing Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

E.g., study for 2 hours straight.
The Spacing Effect Massed practice: Many trials with the same stimuli are undertaken without interruption. E.g., study for 2 hours straight. Distributed practice: Trials with the same stimuli are separated by periods with other activities. Study for 30 minutes, take a 10 minute break (think about something else), Study for 30 minutes, take a 10 minute break (think about something else). Spacing Effect: Distributed practice produces stronger memories than massed practice. Why does the spacing effect occur? Why does spacing effect occur? Reinstatement of previous learning promotes consolidation, i.e., temporary forgetting following by reinstatement of previous learning strengthens previous learning. Also, temporary forgetting can help to see new connections to other knowledge. Sleep strengthens memory. Overview Diagram: Effective Study Methods Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

FACTORS THAT AID ENCODING & RETRIEVAL
Active Memory Create Connections Organization “Chicken experiment” (Goldstein, pp ). To remember “chicken”, it is more effective to study the cue, “The great bird swooped down and carried off the struggling chicken,” than to study the cue, “She cooked the chicken.” The longer sentence produces a more dramatic image and it results in better retrieval. “Baloon experiment” (Goldstein, ). It is easier to remember a story about a balloon if you have a picture that helps you understand the story than without the picture. Without the picture, the story does not make much sense and it is very hard to remember. Generate related ideas Testing Interactive Imagery (boat-tree) Link to self (self-reference effect) Recall by groups i.e., recall related items together Present in an organized way (“tree” experiment) Meaningful framework (“balloon” experiment) Goldstein (2014), Figure 7.5, p. 184 Repeat Goldstein's Recommendations for Study - Emphasis on Illusions of Learning Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Goldstein’s Recommendations for Effective Study Habits
Elaborate on the given information Generate associations to other knowledge Test yourself without an answer key in front of you Organize the material in a meaningful way Take breaks Beware of "illusions of learning" NOTICE: Memorization is NOT a recommended study habit! Next Illusions of Learning Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Illusions of Learning Illusions of learning - some study habits produce a false impression of having learned something. Immediate testing versus delayed testing. Immediate testing: Test immediately after a period of study. Delayed testing: Test after a delay of 20 minutes. Students who engage in immediate testing feel more confident that they have learned the material than students who engage in delayed testing. Students who engage in immediate testing later perform worse than students who engage in delayed testing. Rereading the material give students greater confidence that they know the material then testing, but it actually leads to lower performance. Goldstein has other examples. END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Consolidation of Memories

Outline Consolidation of memories Standard model of consolidation (Alternative theory: The multiple trace model of consolidation) Disruption of memory reconsolidation as a treatment for PTSD Lecture probably ends here Consolidation of Memories Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16

Consolidation of Memories
Recently created memories are typically fragile. Without additional retrievals, they are often too weak to retrieve. A concussion soon after learning can cause permanent loss of a memory. Fragility of new memories implies that it takes cognitive processing after the initial experience to create a strong memory. Goldstein, Figure Typical pattern of retrograde amnesia. The recent past is the least consolidated - it is the most likely to be lost. More distant past is more consolidated - it is more likely to be preserved. Consolidation is the process by which a memory is transformed from an unstable state to a more permanent state. What Is Happening During Consolidation? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What Is Happening During Memory Consolidation?
Changes are happening at two levels: Synaptic Consolidation: Repeated experience causes changes at the level of the synapse. These changes occur quickly, over a matter of minutes. Systems Consolidation: Repeated retrievals cause changes in the organization of neural circuits that represent memories. These changes occur gradually, over days, months or even years. Synaptic Changes During Learning – Long-Term Potentiation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Synaptic Consolidation
Goldstein (2014), Figure 7.14, p. 194 1st Presentation of Stimulus Continued Presentation of Stimulus After Many Presentations of Stimulus Structural Changes Increased firing (LTP) Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Structural changes at synapse result in increased firing to the same stimulus. Same Diagram without Emphasis Rectangles 300 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Synaptic Consolidation
Goldstein (2014), Figure 7.14, p. 194 1st Presentation of Stimulus Continued Presentation of Stimulus After Many Presentations of Stimulus Structural Changes Increased firing (LTP) Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Structural changes at synapse result in increased firing to the same stimulus. System Consolidation - Long-Term Process of Memory Formation 301 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

System Consolidation: The Time Course of Memory Formation
Figure 7.15 (p. 195) attempts to explain the role of the hippocampus in the encoding and consolidation of memories. Hippocampus Cortical Areas Same Diagram – Emphasis Rectangle on Left Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

The Time Course of Memory Formation
Initial Encoding of Current Experience Hippocampus Cortical Areas Same Diagram – Emphasis Rectangle on Middle Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Retrieval of Episodic Memory Hippocampus Cortical Areas Same Diagram – Emphasis Rectangle on Right Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Retrieval (After Much Learning) of Episodic Memory Hippocampus Cortical Areas Transition to Diagrams That Show the Same Process But With Different Graphics Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

The Standard Model of Memory Consolidation
The next slides display the same ideas as the preceding slides, but with more informative graphics. The next set of slides show: The Standard Model of Memory Consolidation Explanation of Consolidation in terms of Brain Diagrams Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Encoding 1: Processing of current information activates different brain areas in occipital, parietal, temporal and frontal cortex. Event or episode This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers website ( for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN ). 2: Multiple brain activations spread to hippocampus (convergence zone). Somehow, hippocampus binds multimodal inputs together and encodes long-term memory. Event or episode Diagram of Brain Activity During Retrieval Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Retrieval 3: At time of recall, partial cues stimulate some brain areas that were also activated at encoding. 5: Somehow, the hippocampus triggers pattern completion (partial reactivation of original activation pattern). Partial cue 4: Activation spreads to the hippocampus. This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers website ( for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN ). Partial cue Partial cue Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 Same Diagram with Statement of Recapitulation Hypothesis

Retrieval Reactivation Hypothesis: (Goldstein, p. 195)
Episodic retrieval involves reinstatement of activations that were present during encoding. Hippocampus plays an important role in reactivation. This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers website ( for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN ). Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 Reactivation Before & After Consolidation

Standard Model of Consolidation:
Retrieval BEFORE consolidation has been completed. Retrieval AFTER consolidation has been completed. Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation
Multiple trace model is opposed to the standard model of consolidation. According to this model, the hippocampus is involved in retrieval of remote episodic memories as well as recent episodic memories, but only if they are not semanticized. Semanticization of Episodic Memories & the Remember/Know Distinction Hippocampus is active during retrieval of remote episodic memories that the subjects "remember", but not during the retrieval of memories that the subjects "know" are true, but don't "remember". Intuitive ideas: Over time, memories can become facts (as opposed to retrieval of experiences). Retrieval of facts may not involve the hippocampus to the same degree as retrieval of experiences. This is called the semanticization of memories (transformation of a memory from being episodic to being semantic). Consolidation & Reconsolidation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Consolidation & Reconsolidation
Fact to be discussed later in this lecture: When a memory is retrieved, it is vulnerable to change. After retrieval of a memory, it is necessary to store the memory again to return it to a permanent state. Consolidation refers to processes that change an initially encoded memory into a permanent memory. Reconsolidation refers to processes that restore a memory to a more permanent form after it has been retrieved. Sometimes consolidation & reconsolidation are referred to together as “consolidation.” Role of Sleep in Consolidation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Interestingly Enough, ..... Sleep (dreaming?) plays a functional role in promoting consolidation. Rat brain cells that fire together while exploring a location also show increased firing during subsequent sleep. Not true of other cells that did not fire during exploration. Disruption of dreaming seems to disrupt consolidation. Similar effects with humans who are learning to play tetris. Some evidence suggests that if a subject expects to be tested on Topic A but not on Topic B, then sleep (possibly, dreaming) enhances future memory of Topic A more than Topic B. Role of sleep in consolidation is not understood, but there seems to be a significant relationship between sleep and consolidation. Goldstein isn’t clear about the distinction between consolidation and reconsolidation. It is certain that they are similar; are they identical? The current literature doesn’t give a definite answer to this questions. McKenzie, S., & Eichenbaum, H. (2011). Consolidation and reconsolidation: Two lives of memories? Neuron, 71, Alberini, C. M. (2005). Mechanisms of memory stabilization: Are consolidation and reconsolidation similar or distinct processes? Trends in Neurosciences, 28(1), Summary of Standard Model of Consolidation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Summary re Standard Model of Consolidation
Consolidation & reconsolidation ... ... long-term memory representations become more stable over time; ... hippocampus plays a central role in retrieval of incompletely consolidated memories; ... over time, retrieval of memories becomes independent from the hippocampus and other medial temporal lobe activity. Memory Representations are Malleable at Time of Retrieval Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Memories Representations Are Malleable At Time of Retrieval
Hypothesis: When memories are retrieved, they are vulnerable to change. Under special circumstances, when memories are retrieved, memories can be altered, even wiped out. Can these ideas be used to develop a treatment for PTSD? Undoing Fear Conditioning in the Rat Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Undoing Fear Conditioning in the Rat
Nader, K., Schafe, G. E., & Le Doux, J. E. (2000). Fear memories require protein synthesis in the amygdala for reconsolidation after retrieval. Nature, 406, If a tone is paired with an electric shock, a rat will learn to freeze when it hears the tone (classical conditioning of fear). Anisomycin – antibiotic that inhibits protein synthesis that is required in the formation of new memories. Administering anisomycin to a rat can cause it to fail to learn. Experimental Design (Diagram of Rat Learning or Unlearning) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Experimental Design Condition 1: Day 1: Tone + Shock + anisomycin Day 2: No drug; no tone; no shock Day 3: Does not freeze to tone (shows no learning) Day Day Day 3 Condition 2: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Drug; no tone; no shock Day 3: Freezes to tone (shows learning) Day Day Day 3 Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats learned to freeze on Day 1. Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats got anisomycin on Day 2. But rats in Condition 1 did not forget their learning on Day 1. Rats in Condition 3 did forget their learning. Why? Retrieval of learning on Day 2 made the learning from Day 1 vulnerable to loss (damage? unlearning?). Spring 2014: Garret Zieve (student) pointed out that we need one more condition: Condition *4*: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Tone (no shock) Day 3: Test tone alone. Need to verify that Day 2 tone alone does not extinguish the conditioning. You need Day 2 drug + tone (no shock) to decondiiton the rat. 5/20/2014: JM talked with Lauren Graham about Garret’s point. She says that the answer depends on the strength of the initial shock (stronger shock is harder to extinguish) and the number of extinction trials on Day 2, but if the Day 1 shock were strong enough and if there was only one extinction trial on Day 2, then indeed it would be well-known that without the drug on Day 2, the one extinction trial would not extinguish the fear conditioning from Day 2. Condition 3: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Drug + tone, no shock. Day 3: Does not freeze to tone (shows no learning) Day Day Day 3 Figure 7.20 Repeat This Slide with Emphasis Rectangles Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Experimental Design Condition 1: Day 1: Tone + Shock + anisomycin Day 2: No drug; no tone; no shock Day 3: Does not freeze to tone (shows no learning) Day Day Day 3 Condition 2: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Drug; no tone; no shock Day 3: Freezes to tone (shows learning) Day Day Day 3 Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats learned to freeze on Day 1. Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats got anisomycin on Day 2. But rats in Condition 1 did not forget their learning on Day 1. Rats in Condition 3 did forget their learning. Why? Retrieval of learning on Day 2 made the learning from Day 1 vulnerable to loss (damage? unlearning?). Spring 2014: Garret Zieve (student) pointed out that we need one more condition: Condition *4*: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Tone (no shock) Day 3: Test tone alone. Need to verify that Day 2 tone alone does not extinguish the conditioning. You need Day 2 drug + tone (no shock) to decondiiton the rat. 5/20/2014: JM talked with Lauren Graham about Garret’s point. She says that the answer depends on the strength of the initial shock (stronger shock is harder to extinguish) and the number of extinction trials on Day 2, but if the Day 1 shock were strong enough and if there was only one extinction trial on Day 2, then indeed it would be well-known that without the drug on Day 2, the one extinction trial would not extinguish the fear conditioning from Day 2. Condition 3: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Drug + tone, no shock. Day 3: Does not freeze to tone (shows no learning) Day Day Day 3 Figure 7.20 Summary of Results Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Summary of Main Finding
Condition 1: Day 1: Tone + Shock + anisomycin Day 2: No drug; no tone; no shock Day 3: Does not freeze to tone (shows no learning) Combining drug with tone & shock on Day 1 prevents fear conditioning. Condition 2: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Drug; no tone; no shock Day 3: Freezes to tone (shows learning) Drug on Day 2 does not undo fear conditioning. Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats learned to freeze on Day 1. Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats got anisomycin on Day 2. But rats in Condition 1 did not forget their learning on Day 1. Rats in Condition 3 did forget their learning. Why? Retrieval of learning on Day 2 made the learning from Day 1 vulnerable to loss (damage? unlearning?). Condition 3: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Drug + tone, no shock. Day 3: Does not freeze to tone (shows no learning) Combining drug with retrieval of fear conditioning on Day 2 undoes fear conditioning. Retrieval Makes Day 1 Learning Vulnerable to Change Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Interpretation Retrieval makes the fear conditioning from Day 1 vulnerable to change. Combining retrieval with drug prevents reconsolidation of memory of fear conditioning, thereby causing loss of conditioning. Condition 3 displayed to the right: Nader et al. (2000) state that the memory trace is "labile" during retrieval, i.e., its form can be changed at that time. Day Day Day 3 Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats learned to freeze on Day 1. Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats got anisomycin on Day 2. But rats in Condition 1 did not forget their learning on Day 1. Rats in Condition 3 did forget their learning. Why? Retrieval of learning on Day 2 made the learning from Day 1 vulnerable to loss (damage? unlearning?). Using Fragility of Memories During Retrieval to Treat PTSD Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Note Added After the Lecture on Thursday 05/05/2016
The following slides pertaining to the treatment of PTSD are the same as the ones that were displayed in class, but an improved version of these slides will be presented on Monday 05/09/ You should use the Monday slides because they are more clear. Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Using the Fragility of Memories During Retrieval to Treat PTSD
Brunet, A., Orr, S. P., Tremblay, J., Robertson, K., Nader, K., & Pitman, R. K. (2008). Effect of post- retrieval propranolol on psychophysiologic responding during subsequent script-driven traumatic imagery in post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42, Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Strong fear and stress responses are evoked by reminders of the initial traumatic event. Brunet et al. asked whether human PTSD patients can lose or at least diminish their fear and stress conditioning by techniques that are similar to Nader et al.'s demonstration that rats can lose their fear conditioning. Study used propranolol, a drug that is used to prevent traumatic memories if administered immediately following a traumatic event. Propranolol reduces the fear & stress conditioning of trauma. Propranolol will not reduce PTSD in someone who already has PTSD. It was previously used to prevent PTSD. Administration of propranolol within several hours of a traumatic experience reduces physiological measures of fear and stress that accompany future retrieval of memories of the traumatic experience. The Goldstein textbook contains a misprint. The drug is referred to as “probanolol” but it should be “propranolol.” Brunet et al.'s Subjects Were PTSD Patients Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Brunet et al.'s Study of PTSD Subjects
PTSD patients: Childhood sexual abuse, motor vehicle accident, rape, being taken hostage. Comorbid mental disorders included: major depressive disorder, panic disorder, social phobia, bulimia, generalized anxiety disorder. Two scripts were prepared for each patient that described the events that produced the trauma for that patient. 19 PTSD patients were randomly assigned to either a treatment condition or a placebo control condition. Both Conditions: Patient hears a 30-second recording describing their traumatic experience. Treatment Condition: Patient is injected with propranolol immediately following recording. Control Condition: Patient is injected with a placebo that has no active ingredients. Related paper on use of corticosteroids to mitigate or block PTSD: E:\pprs\Neuro\ZoharJ Hydrocortisone After Trauma Alters Traj o PTSD.pdf Test of Treatment - Was It Efficacious? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Test of Treatment One week later, the patients listened to a taped version of the scripts that described their traumatic experience, and are asked to imagine the traumatic events while listening to the tape. Physiological measures of stress and anxiety are taken while patients listen to the tape. Question: When the patients hear the taped version of traumatic experience, will they experience fear, anxiety, etc. of PTSD? I.e., has the drug treatment reduced or eliminated their tendency to associate fear responses with these memories. Analogy Between Rat Conditioning and PTSD Treatment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Analogy Between PTSD Treatment & Conditioning
HUMAN RAT Traumatic experience Tone + shock conditioning in the rat Listen to taped Rat hears tone without the shock description of traumatic experience Injection of propranolol Injection of anisomycin immediately after recall immediately after rat hears tone Later, will the human seem to have unlearned the fear conditioning to the traumatic memories? Later, the rat seems to have unlearned the fear conditioning to the tone. Experimental Results Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Grey = placebo group; Black = propranolol group
Brunet et al. Results Tensing of Frowning Muscles Heart Rate Skin Conductance Corrugator EMG Y-Axis Are Z-Scores Relative to Base Rate Patients report symptom improvement. Grey = placebo group; Black = propranolol group Result: Therapy reduces original fear conditioning. Return to Malleability of Memory During Retrieval Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Thursday, May 05, 2016: The Lecture Ended Here

Retrieval, Memory Modification and The Cycle of Consolidation

Outline Brunet’s treatment of unwanted memories in PTSD patients. The cycle of consolidation Introduction to autobiographical memory Lecture probably ends here OLD SLIDE: Nader’s Method for Undoing Fear Conditioning Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16

Undoing Fear Conditioning in the Rat
Skim past: Nader, K., Schafe, G. E., & Le Doux, J. E. (2000). Fear memories require protein synthesis in the amygdala for reconsolidation after retrieval. Nature, 406, If a tone is paired with an electric shock, a rat will learn to freeze when it hears the tone (classical conditioning of fear). Anisomycin – antibiotic that inhibits protein synthesis that is required in the formation of new memories. Administering anisomycin to a rat can cause it to fail to learn. Experimental Design (Diagram of Rat Learning or Unlearning) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Summary of Main Finding
Skim past: Condition 1: Day 1: Tone + Shock + anisomycin Day 2: No drug; no tone; no shock Day 3: Does not freeze to tone (shows no learning) Combining drug with tone & shock on Day 1 prevents fear conditioning. Condition 2: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Drug; no tone; no shock Day 3: Freezes to tone (shows learning) Drug on Day 2 does not undo fear conditioning. Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats learned to freeze on Day 1. Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats got anisomycin on Day 2. But rats in Condition 1 did not forget their learning on Day 1. Rats in Condition 3 did forget their learning. Why? Retrieval of learning on Day 2 made the learning from Day 1 vulnerable to loss (damage? unlearning?). Condition 3: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Drug + tone, no shock. Day 3: Does not freeze to tone (shows no learning) Combining drug with retrieval of fear conditioning on Day 2 undoes fear conditioning. Retrieval Makes Day 1 Learning Vulnerable to Change Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Interpretation Retrieval makes the fear conditioning from Day 1 vulnerable to change. Combining retrieval with drug prevents reconsolidation of memory of fear conditioning, thereby causing loss of conditioning. Condition 3 displayed to the right: Nader et al. (2000) state that the memory trace is "labile" during retrieval, i.e., its form can be changed at that time. Day Day Day 3 Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats learned to freeze on Day 1. Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats got anisomycin on Day 2. But rats in Condition 1 did not forget their learning on Day 1. Rats in Condition 3 did forget their learning. Why? Retrieval of learning on Day 2 made the learning from Day 1 vulnerable to loss (damage? unlearning?). Using Fragility of Memories During Retrieval to Treat PTSD Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Using the Fragility of Memories During Retrieval to Treat PTSD
Brunet, A., Orr, S. P., Tremblay, J., Robertson, K., Nader, K., & Pitman, R. K. (2008). Effect of post- retrieval propranolol on psychophysiologic responding during subsequent script-driven traumatic imagery in post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42, Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Strong fear and stress responses are evoked by reminders of the initial traumatic event. Brunet et al. asked whether human PTSD patients can lose or at least diminish their fear and stress conditioning by techniques that are similar to Nader et al.'s demonstration that rats can lose their fear conditioning. Study used propranolol, a drug that is used to prevent traumatic memories if administered immediately following a traumatic event. Propranolol reduces the fear & stress conditioning of trauma. Skim past: Propranolol will not reduce PTSD in someone who already has PTSD. It was previously used to prevent PTSD. Administration of propranolol within several hours of a traumatic experience reduces physiological measures of fear and stress that accompany future retrieval of memories of the traumatic experience. The Goldstein textbook contains a misprint. The drug is referred to as “probanolol” but it should be “propranolol.” Brunet et al.'s Subjects Were PTSD Patients Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Brunet et al.'s Study of PTSD Subjects
Skim past: PTSD patients: Childhood sexual abuse, motor vehicle accident, rape, being taken hostage. Comorbid mental disorders included: major depressive disorder, panic disorder, social phobia, bulimia, generalized anxiety disorder. Two scripts were prepared for each patient that described the events that produced the trauma for that patient. 19 PTSD patients were randomly assigned to either a TREATMENT Condition or a CONTROL Condition. (Conditions described on next slide.) Related paper on use of corticosteroids to mitigate or block PTSD: E:\pprs\Neuro\ZoharJ Hydrocortisone After Trauma Alters Traj o PTSD.pdf Test of Treatment - Was It Efficacious? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Brunet et al.'s Study: Treatment and Control Conditions
Patient hears recorded description of traumatic experience Patient is injected with propranolol. Patient is injected with placebo. 7 Days Related paper on use of corticosteroids to mitigate or block PTSD: E:\pprs\Neuro\ZoharJ Hydrocortisone After Trauma Alters Traj o PTSD.pdf Patient hears another recorded description of traumatic experience Measure anxiety Test of Treatment - Was It Efficacious? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Test of Treatment Skim past: One week later, the patients listened to a taped version of the scripts that described their traumatic experience, and are asked to imagine the traumatic events while listening to the tape. Physiological measures of stress and anxiety are taken while patients listen to the tape. Question: When the patients hear the taped version of traumatic experience, will they experience fear, anxiety, etc. of PTSD? I.e., has the drug treatment reduced or eliminated their tendency to associate fear responses with these memories. Analogy Between Rat Conditioning and PTSD Treatment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Analogy Between PTSD Treatment & Conditioning
HUMAN RAT Traumatic experience Tone + shock conditioning in the rat Listen to taped Rat hears tone without the shock description of traumatic experience Injection of propranolol Injection of anisomycin immediately after recall immediately after rat hears tone ? Later, will the human seem to have unlearned the fear conditioning to the traumatic memories? Later, the rat seems to have unlearned the fear conditioning to the tone. Experimental Results Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Grey = placebo group; Black = propranolol group
Brunet et al. Results Tensing of Frowning Muscles Heart Rate Skin Conductance Corrugator EMG Y-Axis Are Z-Scores Relative to Base Rate Patients report symptom improvement. Grey = placebo group; Black = propranolol group Result: Therapy reduces original fear conditioning. Return to Malleability of Memory During Retrieval Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Malleability of Memories During Retrieval
Learned associations can be lost during retrieval Rats unlearned tone-shock connection Humans unlearn (to some degree) the association between a traumatic episodic memory and the emotional response. This Slide + Retrieval Strengthens Memory (Consolidation/Reconsolidation) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Learned associations can be lost during retrieval Consolidation & Reconsolidation – Memories can be strengthened during retrieval. Thinking about something produces better future recall. Practice testing (retrieval) produces better future recall. The memory becomes more primed, i.e., more easily retrieved as an associate of something else. This Slide + Query: Do These Facts Contradict Each Other? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Learned associations can be lost during retrieval Consolidation & Reconsolidation – Memories can be strengthened during retrieval. Do these results contradict each other? Stored representations can change during retrieval. Usually the change makes the memory stronger, better organized, more linked to other memories. The memory becomes more primed, i.e., more easily retrieved as an associate of something else. The opposite can also happen, E.g., rats unlearn their fear conditioning, or humans become desensitized to memories of trauma. This is a special case that is based on the injection of drugs that would not normally be present. E.g., while we think about past events, i.e., during retrieval, we may distort the facts or even falsify what was once a true memory. Psychologists believe that this happens to everyone. No! Conclusions re Consolidation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Conclusion re Consolidation
Consolidation occurs through reactivation of memories, followed by re-encoding of the memories. Hippocampus plays a major role in reactivation of recent episodic memories. Standard Model of Consolidation: After the memories have been consolidated, the hippocampus plays a reduced role in retrieval of episodic memories. Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation: After the memories have been consolidated, the hippocampus plays a reduced role in retrieval of episodic memories that have been semanticized (turned into semantic memories, i.e., “remember” the memory), but not for episodic memories that continue to be episodic, i.e., “know” that this is what happened. Memories are malleable during or shortly after retrieval. PBS video titled “Memory Hackers”: Excellent discussion of how memories are created Thank you, Lindsay. The Cycle of Consolidation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

The Cycle of Consolidation
Cycle of consolidation (JM’s term): Repeatedly retrieving some memories. Possibly modifying the memories. Reconsolidating the memories, possibly with modifications. The cycle of consolidation happens spontaneously in many different situations. Image of a Man Thinking About a Conflict with Significant Other Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Not-So-Instant Replay of Interpersonal Conflict
... I asked her why EFG? ... ... but she said ABC! ... ... so I said XYZ. ... ..., etc., etc., etc., ... ... she doesn’t care if PQR! ... ... she thinks JKL. ... Image of a Man Thinking About How to Compute a T-Test Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Statistics Problem Solving
... Does it matter if the sample sizes are different? ... ... What’s the formula for SE(X̅1 – X̅2)? ... ..., etc., etc., etc., ... ... How do I calculate a T-test? ... ... What’s the difference between the standard deviation and the standard error? ... ... What are the degrees of freedom of SSpooled? ... Dwelling On Something Involves Lots of Retrievals – END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Dwelling on Something Usually Involves Lots of Retrieval
Retrieval creates a the potential for modification of memories. Retrieval induced memory change happens very often. We spontaneously engage in thinking patterns that cause retrieval-induced memory change. This is the cycle of consolidation. Retrieval induced memory change is not just a tool for better study habits. Retrieval induced memory change is not just a tool for clinical modification of memories. END – OR – Start Autobiographical Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Autobiographical Memory (AM)
Autobiographical memories are memories of one's personal experiences and history. Many autobiographical memories include episodic memories. E.g., I remember listening to a lecture on statistical theory last week, i.e., I remember where I was sitting in the room, who was around me, etc. Many autobiographical memories include semantic memories. E.g., I remember the name of my elementary school, but the name isn’t connected to a particular experience. If using Spring 2014 or Winter 2013 slides as a basis for future P355 lectures, you should also look at Winter 2011 slides because material re everyday memory, autobiographical memory, schemas, and eyewitness memory was omitted from Winter 2012 and 2013 lectures due to lack of time (snow in 2012, expanded WM discussion in 2012). E.g., material on lifetime retention functions and the reminiscence bump have been omitted. AM & Mental Imagery Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

AM & Mental Imagery AM’s often include memories of visual, auditory, olfactory or haptic aspects of the memory. Memory of a place might include a visual memory. Memory of food might include visual or olfactory aspects. Greenberg and Rubin (2003) Patients who cannot recognize objects also experience loss of autobiographical memory Visual experience plays a role in forming and retrieving AM Visual agnosia – loss of ability to recognize objects. Do AM’s Involve Distinct Patterns of Brain Activity? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Do AM’s Involve Distinct Patterns of Brain Activity?
Subjects (Duke undergrads) took photos of campus landmarks. Later subjects viewed photos during fMRI scan. OWN Photos: Photos taken by the subject. LAB Photos: Photos taken by someone else, not by the subject. Figure 8.1 Goldstein, p. 209, based on Cabeza, Prince, Daselaar, Greenberg, Budde, Dalcos, et. al. (2004). fMRI Results for OWN and LAB Photos (text description) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

fMRI Results for OWN Photos & LAB Photos
Both types of photos activated similar brain structures Medial temporal lobe (MTL) (typical of episodic memory) Parietal cortex (typical of scene processing) OWN-photos activated more of the Prefrontal cortex (PFC) (information about self) Hippocampus (recollection) These interpretations involve theory (intelligent guesswork). fMRI Results for OWN and LAB Photos (fMRI Images) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

fMRI Images that Support Interpretation on Preceding Slide
(a) Parietal cortex (b) Prefrontal cortex (PFC) (c) Hippocampus Figure 8.2. fMRI response in three brain regions. Yellow lines: Response to OWN photos Blue lines: Response to LAB photos OWN photos produce stronger response than LAB photos in PFC & hippocampus. END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Flashbulb Memories then: The Role of Schemas in Memory

Outline Flashbulb memories How do they change over time? Are they based on different mechanisms than everyday memories The role of schemas in memory ("schemas" a.k.a. "schemata") Source monitoring and memory errors Lecture probably ends here What Are Flashbulb Memorise? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16

Flashbulb Memories (FBM's)
Hypothesis: Memory for a dramatic or shocking event is preserved as if a photographic image was made by using a flashbulb with a camera. Do you remember where were you and what were you doing when you first heard about the attack on the World Trade Center? Do you have memories of a major accident, e.g., a car accident? QUESTIONS: Do flashbulb memories differ in strength from regular memories? How do they change over time? Do flashbulb memories involve different memory mechanisms from those that create or maintain ordinary memories? If using Spring 2014 or Winter 2013 slides as a basis for future P355 lectures, you should also look at Winter 2011 slides because material re everyday memory, autobiographical memory, schemas, and eyewitness memory was omitted from Winter 2012 and 2013 lectures due to lack of time (snow in 2012, expanded WM discussion in 2012). What Creates Autobiographical Memories that Lasts a Long Time? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What Creates AM’s that Last a Long Time?
Self-generation of associations (connecting a memory to other knowledge) Distinctiveness Personal importance causes repeated retrievals of a memory. Consolidation & reconsolidation. Distributed practice as opposed to massed practice Strong emotions enhance memory Hamann, Ely, Grafton, & Kilts (1999): PET study. Showed subject very pleasant, very unpleasant and neutral pictures. Emotionally charged pictures produced stronger amygdala response, and better memory. Cahill, Babinsky, Markowitsch, & McGaugh (1995). Patient with damaged amygdala (B. P.) had normal memory for unemotional narratives, but did not show enhanced memory for emotional parts of a narrative. Do FBM's Involve a Special Memory Mechanism? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Is There A Special Memory Mechanism for Flashbulb Memories (FBMs)?
Pro: Special Mechanism FBMs are consequential – they have high impact on our lives. FBMs often produce strong emotions. Con: Special Mechanism Narrative rehearsal hypothesis – we think repeatedly about these events. They are only special because of this rehearsal. Just because we have vivid memories for FBMs doesn't mean that the memories are accurate. Are FBM's Accurate? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Accuracy of FBM's Mixed evidence
Neisser & Harsch (1992) Subjects filled out a questionnaire within 1 day of Challenger disaster (1986), and a similar questionnaire 2.5 years later. Subjects were asked how they learned about the disaster. Large distortions. Phantom flashbulbs – subjects often replaced initial memory with another, TV-based memory. 21% said that they initially learned of event from the TV. After 2.5 years, 45% said that they learned of event from the TV. Result for phantom flashbulbs could be due to retroactive interference (subsequent TV watching becomes confused with memory for initial learning). Time Course of Memories for 9/11 Attacks Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Talarico: Time Course of an FBM
Talarico, J. M., & Rubin, D. C. (2003). Confidence, not consistency, characterizes flashbulb memories. Psychological Science, 14, Studied memories for the 9/11 attack on WTC. On 9/12/01, 54 Duke students wrote down their memories of how they first heard of the 9/11 attack. They also wrote down a recent everyday memory, e.g., going to a sporting event. The study compared 9/11 memories to everyday memories after varying delays. Graphs Showing Decrease in Accuracy but not Decrease in Certainty for FBM Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Goldstein Fig. 8.8. Talarico & Rubin (2003)
Number of details correctly recalled for everyday & flashbulb memories as a function of days after the event. Confidence in the accuracy of everyday & flashbulb memories as a function of days after the event. Summary of Results Depicted in these Graphs (Redundant) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Talarico Fig 1a Figure 1 from Talarico, J. M., & Rubin, D. C. (2003). Confidence, not consistency, characterizes flashbulb memories. Psychological Science, 14, Number of correct details diminishes over time for both flashbulb and everyday memories. Belief in the accuracy of memories diminishes over time for everyday memories but remains high for FBM's. Similar Result for O. J. Simpson Murder Trial Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Memory for the O. J. Simpson Murder Trial: 15 & 32 Months After the Trial
Schmolck, H., Buffalo, E. A., & Squire, L. R. (2000). Memory for distortions develop over time: Recollections of the O. J. Simpson trial verdict after 15 and 32 months. Psychological Science, 11, Subjects were interviewed 3 days after the verdict in the O. J. Simpson murder trial. Answered questions about their thoughts on the trial, e.g., how did you learn of the verdict? how do you feel about the verdict? Subjects were randomly assigned to a 2nd interview 15 or 32 months after the 1st interview. Subjects were asked to recall what they thought at the 1st interview. Over time, there are fewer "don't remember" responses, and more very inaccurate memories (Schmolck et al., 2000). June of 1994: Nicole Brown Simpson & Ronald Goldman were stabbed to death. January of 1995: Trial of O. J. Simpson begins. October of 1995: Simpson is found not guilty of 2 counts of murder. Similar results for death of Princess Diana in August English people interviewed in out of 45 (44%) reported watching a video of her car crash even though no such video was ever made public. "Don't Remember” Very Inaccurate Responses Responses Why Confidence Remains High While Accuracy Diminishes Over Time Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Why do people have high confidence in the accuracy of FBM's even though the accuracy declines?
People keep thinking about flashbulb memories. Increases strength of memory. Supports the narrative rehearsal hypothesis. People add information that helps them make sense out of the memory, but the added information may not be accurate. The added information makes the memory more meaningful. Memory is constructive or reconstructive. Source misattribution. I.e., people learn something after an event but they come to believe that they learned it while experiencing the event. Return to Question: Is there a Special Mechanism for FBM's? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Do Flashbulb Memories (FBM’s) Involve Special Cognitive Mechanisms?
Bottom line: No convincing evidence that FBM's involve special mechanisms, although there are ways in which they tend to be unusual. Encoding is often associated with stronger emotion, more vivid detail, events are more personally important. It is likely that FBM’s are retrieved multiple times. These retrievals lead to strengthened associations with other facts and ideas. Consolidation and reconstruction of memory over time. Over time, people have higher confidence in the accuracy of FBM's than everyday memories from the same time period. FBM's appear more vivid and more clear at time of retrieval. A Schema for "Office Rooms" Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Brewer & Treyens (1981) : A Schema for "Office Room"
Schemas: Representations of typical characteristics of objects, situations or events. Subject asked to wait in this office room for about 30 seconds prior to start of experiment. Subject does not know that memory will be tested for this room. Subject is moved to another room. Recall test – What do you remember about the waiting room? Predictions & Findings of "Office Room" Experiment 368 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Brewer & Treyens (1981): A Schema for "Office Room"
Predictions: Memory will be biased .... .... towards recall of schema consistent information; .... and against recall of schema inconsistent information Findings: Correct recall: Desk, chairs, shelves Intrusion Errors: Books on shelves Omission Errors: Skull, small doll These results show the constructive nature of memory. We use schemas to fill in the gaps in our memory. Schema consistent Schema inconsistent Advantages & Disadvantages of Schematic Influences on Memory 369 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Schemas and Scripts Influence Memory
Memory can include information not actually experienced but inferred because it is expected and consistent with the schema "Scripts" are like schemas except that a script is a typical sequence of events or actions. We have scripts for how to pay for our purchases in a check out line at the market. We have scripts for how to greet a respected visitor to our home. Memory is constructive. The constructive property of memory is generally advantageous, but it can lead to errors or “false memories” Roediger/McDermott/Deese Experiment – Same as Coglab Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

False Memory 1 Downloaded with permission from Thomas Pusateri’s website, December 2004. The version of the demonstration shown here slightly modifies the original. Demonstration of the Deese (1959), Roediger & McDermott (1995) false memory paradigm. The False Memory experiment was assigned to Psych 355 students (CogLab). Instructions for the Experiment 371 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Roediger/McDermott/Deese Paradigm
You will see a list of 19 words, one at a time. Do whatever you can to remember as many words as you can. At the end of the list, write down as many of the words as you can recall. Note to Instructor: The following stimulus slides are self timed (1.8 seconds/slide), so just let them run. You don’t have to advance the slides. ALL-PURPOSE MEMORY DEMONSTRATION 1 (POSSIBLE FALSE MEMORY FOR SLEEP) This demonstration is an adaptation of a workshop presentation by Douglas Bernstein. He could not locate the original source of this demonstration, which was introduced to him by one of his teaching assistants in introductory psychology. The instructions appear on the first slide. Advance to the second slide to present the list of words for two seconds per word. After the last word, students are instructed to recall all of the words; this slide is timed for forty-five seconds followed by a drum roll. On the last slide, poll the students for recall of certain words in the list. Here is a brief explanation of each memory effect, with some elaboration you may use in your discussion: Primacy effect. The words “bed” and “clock” were the first two words in this list. Most students will recall these words due to the greater opportunity for rehearsing these words. Recency effect. The words “snore” and “pillow” were the last two words in the list. Most students will recall these words because they are still in their immediate attention (short-term memory) during recall. You may wish to ask students how recall for these words could be disrupted. The answer is by introducing a distractor task after presentation of the list. Repetition/Rehearsal. Words in the middle of a list are often not well-recalled, however, most students will recall the word “night”. Ask students if they can recall how often the word “night” appeared in the list. It is likely that many students will indicate correctly that the word was repeated three times in the list. Repetition facilitates recall because it permits additional opportunity to rehearse this word compared to other words in the middle of the list. Distinctiveness. Most of the words are associated with each other. However, one word in the list, “artichoke” is so different than the others that it is often recalled, even though it appears in the middle of the list. You may discuss this as an example of deeper processing of a word that is distinctive, salient, and unusual. Semantic Organization. First ask the volunteers if they recalled the word “toss”. Then, ask those who recalled “toss” whether they followed recall of the word “toss” immediately by recall of the word “turn”. There will be several students who recall the words as a pair, even though they are separated in the list and “turn” precedes “toss”. You may discuss this as a form of semantic organization or elaboration of memory. The words are very highly associated and easily connected together in students’ recall. “False Memory”. Ask the whole class if anyone recalled the word “sleep”. Ask those students who recalled this word to attempt to recall where in the list the word appeared. Was it in the first half or the last half of the list? Most students who recall the word will report that they “know” it is in the list, but they cannot “remember” exactly where the word appeared. This demonstrates that constructive processes in memory may create memories of events that did not occur (“false memories”). Start of the Stimulus Sequence 372 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

BED 373 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

CLOCK 374 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

DREAM 375 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

NIGHT 376 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

TURN 377 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

MATTRESS 378 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

SNOOZE 379 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

NOD 380 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

TIRED 381 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

STOVE 383 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

INSOMNIA 384 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

REST 385 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

TOSS 386 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

ALARM 388 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

NAP 389 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

SNORE 390 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

PILLOW 391 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

************************************************ WRITE DOWN THE WORDS YOU SAW ************************************************ Psych 355 students are already familiar with this experiment from CogLab. Actually you can skip this step, but this is what subjects are asked to do. Correct List of Words & Types of Erors 392 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Here are the stimulus words in the presented order:
BED, CLOCK, DREAM, NIGHT, TURN, MATTRESS, SNOOZE, NOD, TIRED, NIGHT, STOVE, INSOMNIA, REST, TOSS, NIGHT, ALARM, NAP, SNORE, PILLOW Types of Memory Errors Intrusion errors: Words not on the list that you thought were there. Common intrusion error: Sleep related words like: SLEEP, DROWSY or FATIGUE Omission errors: Words on the list that you didn't recall. Common omission error: Non-sleep related word like: STOVE Interpretation of Experimental Results 393 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Interpretation of Results for the Roediger/McDermott/Deese Paradigm
Almost all of the words are sleep-related ("going to sleep" schema). The Roediger/McDermott/Deese paradigm is designed to cause subjects to make two kinds of errors: Schema-consistent intrusion errors. In the preceding example, the schema was something like "objects or actions that are related to sleeping." For this example, schema-consistent intrusion errors would be words like: "sleep", "drowsy", "pajamas", etc. Schema-inconsistent omission errors. The word STOVE was the only non-sleep related word in the list. Subjects are more likely to omit STOVE than other words. Schema-consistent intrusion errors & schema-inconsistent omission errors provide evidence for the constructive (or reconstructive) nature of memory. In general, people will remember experiences in a way that creates a more coherent story. Advantages & Disadvantages of Memory Schemas 394 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Advantages & Disadvantages of Constructive Memory
Allows us to fill in the gaps in our knowledge. Speeds up how quickly we can interpret or respond to a situation. Helps create a meaningful narrative about our life experiences. In general, cognition is inferential. The schematic nature of memory – similar to Helmholtz’s “unconscious inference”. Schemas help organize experiences into "chunks." Disadvantages Sometimes we make errors without realizing it. Sometimes our memories are based on expectations and not on the actual experience. Intro to Source Misattribution & Eyewitness Testimony Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Eyewitness Testimony Basic source of evidence in the Anglo-American legal system. Historically more trusted than circumstantial evidence. Of 248 people who were exonerated through the work of the Innocence Project, 75% were convicted on eyewitness testimony (Quinlivan et al., 2009; Scheck et al., 2000). Sources of Error in Eyewitness Testimony Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Sources of Error in Eyewitness Testimony
Intrinsic fallability of memory Post-event suggestions by interested parties, esp. police. Misleading post-event information (MPI) can bias memory Misinformation effect (later in this lecture) Misleading familiarity Cross-racial identification Line ups versus show ups. Line up: Did one of these men do it? (People tend to respond as if the question is, who in this group looks the most like the person you saw?) Sequential show up: Did Man A do it? Did Man B do it? etc. (Surprisingly less biased) Misinformation Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Source Monitoring & Source Misattribution
Source monitoring - retaining a memory for the source of information in memory. Source misattribution - attributing a memory to one source when the actual source was something else. Example: My friends tell me about a large building fire that they witnessed. Years later I believe that I witnessed this fire along with my friends. Source misattribution can cause errors in eyewitness testimony. A familiar face is more likely to be falsely identified as a perpetrator of a crime (witness thinks the familiarity is due to seeing this person commit the crime). Example: Donald Thompson, a memory researcher. While watching Donald Thompson on TV, a woman who was attacked in her home. Later she identified him as the attacker. Experimental Study of Source Misattribution Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Source Misattribution is One Cause of Erroneous Eyewitness Memory
A familiar face is more likely to be falsely identified as a perpetrator of a crime (witness thinks the familiarity is due to seeing this person commit the crime). Example: Donald Thompson, a memory researcher. While watching Donald Thompson on TV, a woman who was attacked in her home. Later she identified him as the attacker. Remember/Know Distinction: Feeling of familiarity ≠ Recollection but people may say that they "remember" someone when they feel familiar. Tomorrow: Continue discussing source monitoring errors and eyewitness memory. Experimental Study of Source Misattribution Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Source Monitoring & Eyewitness Memory

Outline Memory is constructive Eyewitness memory
Source monitoring and source monitoring errors Errors in eyewitness memory Advantages & Disadvantages of Constructive Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Constructive Memory Advantages Disadvantages
Helps to create a meaningful narrative about our life experiences. Allows us to fill in the gaps in our knowledge. Speeds up how quickly we can interpret or respond to a situation. Sometimes our memories are based on expectations and not on the actual experience. Schemas help organize experiences into "chunks" that are easier to manipulate in working memory, and easier to associate with similar experiences. Sometimes we make errors without realizing it. Intro to Eyewitness Testimony

Eyewitness Testimony Basic source of evidence in the Anglo-American legal system. Historically more trusted than circumstantial evidence. Of 341 people who were exonerated by DNA evidence as of 2012, eyewitness testimony played a role in 75% of the original convictions. (Quinlivan et al., 2009; Scheck et al., 2000). Sources of Error in Eyewitness Testimony Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Sources of Error in Eyewitness Memory
Intrinsic fallability of memory Misleading familiarity Cross-racial identification Feedback can reinforce memory errors Line ups versus show ups. Line up: Did one of these men do it? (People tend to respond as if the question is, who in this group looks the most like the person you saw?) Sequential show up: Did Man A do it? Did Man B do it? etc. (Surprisingly less biased) Post-event suggestions by interested parties, esp. police. Misleading post-event information (MPI) can bias memory Misinformation effect Source Monitoring & Source Misattribution Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Source Monitoring & Source Misattribution
Source monitoring - retaining a memory for the source of information in memory. Source misattribution - attributing a memory to one source when the actual source was something else. Example: My friends tell me about a large building fire that they witnessed. Years later I believe that I witnessed this fire along with my friends. Source Misattribution & Errors in Eyewitness Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Source Misattribution is One Cause of Erroneous Eyewitness Memory
Source misattribution can cause errors in eyewitness testimony. A familiar face is more likely to be falsely identified as a perpetrator of a crime (witness thinks the familiarity is due to seeing this person commit the crime). Example: A woman was attacked in her home shortly after watching a TV show in which a psychologist, David Thompson, was interviewed. Later she identified David Thompson as the attacker. (He had an alibi, the interview on the TV show.) Remember/Know Distinction: Feeling of familiarity ≠ Recollection but people may say that they "remember" Mr. X when Mr. X is familiar. * Ironically, David Thompson studies memory distortion. Ross et al. Experimental Study of Source Misattribution Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Source Misattribution & Eyewitness Identification
See Figure 8.17 in Goldstein Robber Not Present Try to pick robber from photospread; male teacher present Experimental View male teacher reading to students Both Conditions View female teacher getting robbed by a man. Robber Present Try to pick robber from photospread; male teacher present Control View female teacher reading to students Ross, D. F., Ceci, S. J., Dunning, D., & Toglia, M. P. (1994). Unconscious transference and mistaken identity: When a witness misidentifies a familiar but innocent person. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, Same Slide with Emphasis Rectangles Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Source Misattribution & Eyewitness Identification
See Figure 8.17 in Goldstein Robber Not Present Try to pick robber from photospread; male teacher present Experimental View male teacher reading to students Both Conditions View female teacher getting robbed by a man. Robber Present Try to pick robber from photospread; male teacher present Control View female teacher reading to students Ross, D. F., Ceci, S. J., Dunning, D., & Toglia, M. P. (1994). Unconscious transference and mistaken identity: When a witness misidentifies a familiar but innocent person. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, Results of This Study Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Robber not in photospread % Identification of Male Teacher
Results of Ross et al. (1994) Figure 8.20: Ross et. al. (1994) 60% id male teacher when robber not in photospread. 20% id teacher in control group. 18% id male teacher when robber in photospread. 10% id teacher in control group. Source misattributions can cause mistaken identifications. Robber not in photospread Robber in photospread E C % Identification of Male Teacher E = Experimental Condition = View male teacher at stage 1 C = Control Condition = View female teacher at stage 1 Misinformation Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Lineups versus Show-Ups – What Are They?
Classic showup: Police show only one person to a witness. Question: "Is he the man you saw?" Classic lineup: Police show 7 people to the witness: Question: "Do you see the perpetrator in the line up?" Improved showup = sequential showup: Police tell the witness, "We're going to show you a series of men (of unstated length). Stop me when you see the perpetrator." Contrary to most people's expectations, show ups are more accurate than line ups. Why are showups more accurate than lineups? Why Lineups & Showups Differ as Cognitive Tasks Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Cognitive Differences Between Lineups and Showups
Classic showup: Witness asks himself/herself: "Did I see this person do the crime?" Classic lineup: Witness assumes that the perpetrator is in the lineup. Witness asks himself/herself: "Which of these men looks the most like the person that I saw?" Sequential presentation = sequential showup (Goldstein refers to this a sequential presentation) With each person, the witness asks himself/herself: "Am I sure that this is the person who I saw do the crime?" Lindsey & Wells (1985) found that the sequential showup greatly reduced false id when the perpetrator was not present (43% vs 17%) Sequential showups slightly reduced the rate of true id when perpetrator is present. Mistake! Misinformation Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Misinformation Effect
MPI = Misleading Postevent Information Overview of the Misinformation Effect Subject sees a video, or a slide sequence, or reads a story. I'll call this "the video." The video usually depicts a crime. After seeing the video, the subject is asked questions about it. For some subjects, the questions contain misinformation (MPI or false assumptions). Subjects receive a memory test. A misinformation effect is found if subjects who heard the misleading questions remember the video in a way that is consistent with the question and not the video. Introduce Loftus & Palmer - Car Crash Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

MPI: Leading Questions Can Produce Memory Biases
Loftus & Palmer (1974) Subjects see film of an auto accident. Questions contained alternative descriptions of the accident. Results: Effect of the Biased Questions Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Leading Question Can Produce Memory Biases
Verb Estimated Speed smashed 40.8 collided 39.3 bumped 38.1 hit 34.0 contacted 31.8 Loftus & Palmer Result for Broken Glass Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Leading Questions Can Produce False Inferences
One week later, subjects were asked: Did you see any broken glass? Actually, there was no broken glass in the film. Yes No "smashed" 32 68 "hit" 14 86 control* 12 88 * The control group were not asked about the speed of the car (no misinformation; no correct information). Misinformation Effect - Loftus, Miller & Burns UW: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Win '12

Misinformation Effect: Loftus, Miller, & Burns (1978)
Subjects watch slides that show a traffic accident: Car A runs a stop sign and hits Car B. Consistent Info Condition: How fast was Car A going when it went past the stop sign? Inconsistent Info Condition: How fast was Car A going when it went past the yield sign? Memory test: Did Car A go past a stop sign or a yield sign? Results of Loftus, Miller & Burns Experiment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Results of Loftus, Miller & Burns (1978)
% Correct Identification of the Stop Sign Misinformation Effect #Section: x <- c(0, 1/3, 1, 2, 7) incon <- c(38, 42, 36, 30, 20) neu <- c(85, 58, 61, 49, 50) consis <- c(81, 70, 73, 67, 65) plot.jm(x, incon, axes=F, xlim = c(0, 7), ylim=c(0, 100)) lines(x, incon, lwd=2) lines(x, neu, lwd=2) lines(x, consis, lwd=2) points(x, incon, lwd=2, pch=15, cex=1.25) points(x, neu, lwd=2, pch=16, cex=1.25) points(x, consis, lwd=2, pch=17, cex=1.25) axis(2, lwd=2) abline(h=0, lwd=2) lines(c(0,0), c(0, 2), lwd=2) lines(c(1/3,1/3), c(0, 2), lwd=2) lines(c(1,1), c(0, 2), lwd=2) lines(c(2,2), c(0, 2), lwd=2) lines(c(7,7), c(0, 2), lwd=2) text(2, 73, "Consistent Info", cex=1.25, adj=0) text(2, 55, "Neutral Info", cex=1.25, adj=0) text(2, 34, "Inconsistent Info", cex=1.25, adj=0) mtext("Retention Interval", 1, at=3.5, line = 2, cex=1.5) mtext("Percent Correct", 2, at=50, line = 2.25, cex=1.5) mtext(c("0", "20", "1", "2", "1"), 1, at = c(0, 1/3, 1, 2, 7), line = -.75, cex=1.15) mtext(c(" ", " min.", "day", "days", "week"), 1, at = c(0, 1/3, 1, 2, 7), line = .1, cex=1.15) #EndSection: A misinformation effect was found (it gets larger over time) Chan: Recalling an Event Increases Susceptibility to Misinformation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Recalling an Event Increases Susceptibility to Misinformation Effects
Chan, J. C. K., Thomas, A. K., & Bulevich, J. B. (2009). Recalling a witnessed event increases eyewitness suggestibility. Psychological Science, 20, 66–73. Subjects view tape of "24" TV program. Misinformation: A terrorist knocks out flight attendant with an injection of a drug, but the misinformation assumes that a chloroform pad was used. Cued recall test increases tendency to recall misinformation. Feedback Can Increase Confidence in Erroneous Memories Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Feedback Can Increase Confidence in Erroneous Memories
Subjects viewed video of crime. Subjects shown a photo array that did not contain the perpetrator of the crime. All subjects picked someone from the photo array. (!!!) Confirming Feedback Condition: "Good, you identified the suspect." No Feedback Condition Disconfirming Feedback Condition: "Actually the suspect was number __." Later when asked how confident they were in their identifications, subjects were most confident with confirming feedback. APA Recommendations for Use of Eyewitness Memory in Courts Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Recommendations for Improving Eyewitness Memory
Use a sequential showup (Goldstein would call it a sequential presentation). In a showup, use non-suspects who are similar to a suspect. Inform witness that the perpetrator may not be in a showup. Administrator of showup should not know who is the suspect. Get confidence rating immediately after the initial identification. Avoid giving feedback to the witness after the lineup Use cognitive interview techniques; do not prompt the witness with leading questions. See Wikipedia article on cognitive interview techniques: Cognitive interview technique includes: Have witness mentally reinstate the environment and personal context of the event. Have witness report in depth the details of the event, including details that may not seem important or relevant. Describe the event in several different temporal orders. Report the event from various perspectives, e.g., what could another witness see or hear? Memory Accuracy & Memory Errors - END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Memory Accuracy & Memory Errors
Psychologists are not claiming that memories are mostly errors. We need to be aware that errors do occur, especially in situations where beliefs about memory accuracy have great practical importance. In general, people are overconfident in the accuracy of their memories. END - or Continue to Outline of Recovered Memories Topic Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Wednesday, May 11, 2016: The Lecture Ended Here

1. Unlearning a phobia by retrieval + drug 2. Recovered memories

Outline Video from the 2016 PBS program, Nova Episode: "Memory Hackers". Video has excellent examples of: Use of Nader's fear deconditioning method to treat spider phobia. Implanting a false memory in an unsuspecting person. Nader/Brunet Method for Deconditioning a Chronic Fear Response Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16

Nader/Brunet Method for Deconditioning a Chronic Fear Response
Patient encounters a memory cue for a memory M that produces a problematic fear response. E.g., listening to a taped description of the patient's traumatic experience. After retrieving the fear response, the patient receives propranolol, a drug that blocks the fear response. Later the fear response is no longer associated with the memory M to which it was previously linked. Proposed Explanation: The propranolol prevents the patient from reconsolidating the association between the memory M and the fear response. Therefore this association is lost; future retrievals of the memory will not trigger the emotional response. URL for the Nova Video, the "Memory Hackers" Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16

PBS NOVA- MEMORY HACKERS, 2016
< Deconditioning spider phobia: 30:00 to 36:40. Retrieval and Reconsolidation Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Retrieval and Reconsolidation
Memories are malleable at time of retrieval. Abbreviated MMTR Retrievals an be cued by an external stimulus, e.g., a spider, but also by internal thoughts, e.g., worrying over a personal problem or trying to understand a science problem. MMTR can be manipulated to the benefit of a patient. E.g., deconditioning a phobia. Malleability of memories affects our memories of personal events if we continue to think about them. Malleability of memories affects our understanding of scientific domains if we build that understanding by following chains of inference that depend on many retrievals. What Are Recovered Memories? Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What Are Recovered Memories?
Definition: A recovered memory is a memory that has two characteristics: The experiences that are remembered are shocking or traumatic. There was an extended period in the individual's life when he or she did not remember the experiences that are eventually "recovered." recovered memory abuse no memory Now Time Theory of Recovered Memory Has Important Consequences Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Theory of Recovered Memory Has Important Consequences
Claims of recovered memories have huge consequences for: ... the person who experiences the recovered memory; and ... persons accused of abuse based on recovered memories. Consequences are social, psychological, and legal. If certain kinds of psychological therapy can produce false recovered memories, then, as psychologists, we are obligated to learn about this and prevent it. Example of a False Recovered Memory of Sexual Abuse Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Sometimes Recovered Memories Are Not True Memories
B. R. (Missouri, 1992) remembered under therapy that her father, a clergyman, had repeatedly raped her between ages of 7 – 14 (with her mother's help). She remembered being pregnant twice, each pregnancy ending in an abortion. Father had to resign his post as clergyman. Later, medical examination showed that she has never been pregnant and was in fact still a virgin at age 22. The therapist who guided the "recovery" of these memories was sued by B. R. and settled for $1 million in 1996. Conclusion: It is not true that recovered memories are always true memories. * This information comes from: Loftus, E. F. (1997). Creating false memories. Scientific American, 277(3), Example of Verified Forgetting of Early Trauma Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Some Traumas Can Be Forgotten
Williams (1994) interviewed women who had been treated 17 years earlier at a sexual abuse clinic. 38% had no memory of the incident for which they had been admitted. 12% had no memory of any sexual abuse at any time. (12%  15 women) Conclusion: It is probably not true that recovered memories are always false memories. % with No Recall of Incident that Brought Them to Clinic Williams, L. M. (1994). Recall of childhood trauma: A prospective study of women's memories of child sexual abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, These women had all participated in a NIMH study of sexual abuse at the time that they were first admitted to the clinic ( ). At the time of their abuse, these girls were 10 months to 12 years of age. These women were contacted again 17 years later ( ). Out of 153 women who could be located, 10 refused to be re-interviewed, 7 agreed to be re-interviewed but didn't show up, and 4 were dropped because their abuse did not involve sexual contact, and 3 more were dropped because they claimed that the initial claim of sexual abuse had been fabricated. Loftus & Pickrell (1995): Imagining Can Produce False Memories Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Imagining Can Produce False Memories
Loftus, E.F. & Pickrell, J.E. (1995). The formation of false memories. Psychiatric Annals, 25, Subjects recruited in pairs: UW student + parent or sibling. Working with parent or sibling, the experimenters prepare a booklet containing 3 true events and 1 plausible fabricated event. E.g., fabricated event = subject got lost in a shopping mall, crying, aid and comfort by an elderly woman and, finally, reunion with the family. Procedure: Subject reads the description of each event. Subject asked to remember the event. Subject writes "I do not remember this" if they do not recall the event. Subjects are repeatedly encouraged to "remember" the fabricated event. Results of Loftus & Pickrell Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Result for Loftus & Pickrell (1995)
About 25% of subjects “remember” the fabricated event after 2 sessions of trying to recall the event. Conclusion: It is possible to convince people that fabricated childhood events did occur. Notice analogy to therapist attempting to "recover" memories of childhood abuse. Note that the anti-recovered memory advocates do not claim that everyone can be made to believe in false memories. They only want to show that this can sometimes occur. PBS Nova, the "Memory Hackers" - Inducing a False Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

PBS NOVA- MEMORY HACKERS, 2016
< 38: :30: Demonstration that false memory can be implanted. Young woman is gradually convinced that at age 14 she got into a dispute with someone in a public place, and she was arrested by the police [not true]. Method is based on suggestion and retrievals of related memories (building up the parts of the memory) Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16

What Is the Recipe for Creating a False Autobiographical Memory?
Repeatedly retrieve a specific memory M. If the subject does not remember anything like M, then start by remembering common details that will be part of the memory of M. At each retrieval, encourage the subject to modify the memory in some way, i.e., ask leading questions or suggest abusive possibilities may have occurred. Encourage the subject to imagine the context of the abuse and the occurrence of abuse. Provide positive feedback whenever the subject makes a statement that suggests that abuse has occurred. Are There Verifiable Examples of Recovered Memories? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

Conclusions Regarding Recovered Memories
There is reason to believe that recovery of true traumatic memories has sometimes occurred. There is evidence that false memories can be created. There is evidence that some therapists have unintentionally “helped” patients create false memories of traumatic events. The method for creating a false memory M involves repeatedly imagining aspects or components of M; retrieving previous imaginings of M; gradually modifying beliefs that are linked to M. APA Recommendations re Recovered Memories of Sexual Abuse - END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

APA Panel Recommendations APA = American Psychological Association
The controversy over adult recollections should not obscure the fact that child sexual abuse is a complex and pervasive problem. Most people who were sexually abused as children remember all or part of what happened to them. It is possible for memories of abuse that have been forgotten for a long time to be remembered. It is possible to construct convincing pseudomemories (false memories) for events that never occurred. END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

End of Lectures: 04-1 to 07-4 + Section Slides
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15

Combined Lecture Slides, Weeks

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Combined Lecture Slides, Weeks"— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback

Log in

Auth with social network:

Combined Lecture Slides, Weeks

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Combined Lecture Slides, Weeks"— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback