1. Decolonization in Settler Colonies

2. Key topics Pattern of decolonization in settler colonies
Armed struggle
Examples of Algeria and Kenya

3. Decolonization in North Africa
The Maghreb: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya
Population: Berber and Arabs
Connection with Rome and spread of Christianity
Arab/Muslim conquest in 7th century
Predominance of Islam and Arabic language
Rise of Berber and Arab kingdoms
Muslim conquest of Spain
Expulsion of Muslims and Jews from Spain
Settlement in north Africa
Ottoman domination of north Africa
French colonialism

4. North Africa During W.W.II
Nazi invasion and occupation of France
Establishment of a pro-Nazi government at Vichy
A rival French government was set up in exile led by General Charles De Gaulle
The Vichy regime controlled North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia)
Vichy’s government provided logistical support to the German forces
In 1942 British, American, and forces loyal to De Gaulle invaded North Africa and drove the German forces
This raised the hope of nationalists to gain independence

5. Morocco and Tunisia
The nationalist movement was led by the king Muhammad V
Working class strikes and demand for better working conditions
French deposed the king
Widespread reaction: the population boycotted French goods
guerrilla armed resistance in the rural areas
France defeat in Indochina in 1956 and the war of liberation in Algeria
France returned Muhammad V who become the king of independent Morocco
Granting independence in Tunisia
Decolonization in Algeria would drag on for another ten years

6. Algeria French colonialism Algeria was part of the Ottoman empire
French colonization in 1830
Algeria’s unique status: ruled as part of metropolitan France
French trade and investment
French immigrants and rise of a large settler community
Other European immigrants: Spanish, Italians, and Maltese

7. French colonialism
1889 extension of French citizenship to all European settlers
Local Algerians considered colonial subjects (indigenes)
under the Code de l’indigenat of 1865
Citizenship granted only to the assimilated
Assimilation meant relinquishing their religion (Islam) and language (Arabic)
French settlers were known as pieds-noirs (black fleet)
In 1954 settlers numbered 1 million, while local Algerians were 9 millions
Settlers political influence
Pieds-noir occupied middle position
Their racist attitude towards the native Algerians

8. Development of Algerian Nationalism
Early nationalism
Federation of Elected Natives founded in 1926 demanded full citizenship for évolués
Establishment of Étoile Nord-Africain (Star of North Africa) in Paris 1926
Demanded complete independence of Algeria
Its alliance with the French Communist Party
One of the leaders was Ahmed Messali Hadj
Hadj gradually moved from socialism and embraced Arab-Islamic nationalism

9. Division among Algerian nationalists
Some sought to reform French rule, while others wanted to overthrow it
In 1936 Blum-Viollette plan: open citizenship to more Algerians
Many Algerians viewed it as a divide-and-rule strategy
It would create an elite class separated from the masses
Opposition by French settlers

10. Algerian Nationalism During WWII
During W.W.II 170,000 Algerians served in the French army
They were expecting French citizenship
The small class of évolués also demanded citizenship
However, the évolués were considered second class citizens

11. Post-War Protests The protests of 8 May 1945 and the Setif Massacre
About 8000 Algerian activists organized a march to mark the surrender of Nazi Germany
Confrontation with French settlers and the killing of103 settlers
The French responded by launching aerial bombing killing over 1,300 but Algerians give a much higher figure
The massacre was a turning point

12. Nationalist movement Political organizations:
Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto led by Ferhat Abbas
Triumph of Democratic Liberties led by Messali Hadj
Organization Speciale led by Ahmed Ben Bella and adopted a strategy of armed struggle
French authorities dissolving OS in 1951 and exile of Ben Bella to Cairo
Ben Bella established Front de Liberation Nationale (FLN) National Liberation Front
Inspired by French defeats in Indochina, FLN launched armed struggle in November 1954

13. The Liberation Struggle
Early success
French deployment of 1 million troops who were joined by settlers
The French were revenging their humiliating defeat in Indochina
Algerian independence was totally unimaginable
Algeria was considered part of France since 1881
The conflict in Algeria was considered domestic and an internal matter
This meant the Geneva Conventions that protected the rights of combatants and non-combatants in times of war, did not apply in Algeria
Practice of torture
Declaration of state of emergency in 1955
Thousands of Algerians were arrested

14. Liberation struggle FLN used ambush as a primary tactic
French strategy of quadrants: dispersion of small military units across the country
Efforts of Albert Camus, author and philosopher
A pied-noir and member of Algerian Communist Party,
1956 organized a public meeting that included Ferhat Abbas and advocated the protection of civilian non-combatants
But his idealism was criticized from all sides

15. Sommam Conference August 1956 Sommam conference
FLN internationalize its cause and seek support from north Africa and the Third World
Declared that the Algerian Revolution as a secular, nationalist, and racially diverse
Response to French describing the movement as terrorist organization
The FLN moved the fighting to Algiers the capital city
The Battle of Algiers in September 1956
It was a brutal and gruesome conflict involving 450,000 French soldiers and 40,000 FLN fighters

16. Role of Algerian Women
The majority of Algerian Muslim women joined the (FLN)
About 11,000 women participated
Women participated as combatants, spies, fundraisers, nurses, launderers, and cooks

17. Liberation struggle The war caused major political crises in France
In 1958 Charles De Gaulle came to power
The settlers in Algeria hoped that he would bring rapid victory
France change of strategy:
Heavy casualties and the heavy economic costs
Pressure from families of soldiers
France signed the Treaty of Rome which created European Economic Community
France interest shifted from the Mediterranean to Europe
De Gaulle began to negotiate a compromise solution

18. Settlers rebellion
March 1962 ceasefire between De Gaulle and the FLN
1 million Algerians had died
The settlers launched a wave of sabotage
Loss of hope that moderate settlers would remain
1 million settlers migrated back to France
Independence came on 5 July 1962

19. Post-independence developments
 divisions among FLN leaders
Ahmed Ben Bella popularity
His election as prime minister
Recognition of his government by US and admission of Algeria to UN
Establishment of one party system: FLN would be the only party.
In 1965, Ben Bella was overthrown by Houari Boumédiènne
Ben Bella lived in exile
Algeria remained stable, though in a one-party state until a violent civil war broke out in the 1990s

20. Ben Bella (died in 2012 at the age of 95

21. Decolonization in the settler colony of Kenya
Kenya was the last British colony in East Africa to gain independence
The course of nationalism resembled that of Algeria
White settlement in the high lands and appropriation of land
Urban and Rural Protests
Dock workers strike in Mombasa (1947)
The struggle revolved around land
Many landless peasants made their living from squatting in White settlers farms
The squatters were often expelled
Many could not find employment

22. Tensions within Kikuyu society: between older, Christian, Western educated elite and landless poor
Kikuyu elites dismissed the aspiration of marginalized groups
Nairobi general strike (1950)
Spread of unrest to the rural areas
In 1952 establishment of Land and Freedom Army , which the British called the Mau Mau
Killing of settlers
British declaration of state of emergency

23. Military campaign
About Kikuyu were rounded and into detention camps
Defeat of Mau Mau and execution of their leader
Causalities
95 Europeans
2,000 “Loyal” Africans
11,503 African rebels

24. British Reforms
Giving farmers plots of land Lifting the Ban of Growing Coffee by Africans
Leader of the nationalist movement: Jomo Kenyatta, a Kikuyu
Education in Britain in 1930s
Pan African activities and visit to Soviet Union
Return to Kenya in 1946 and his leadership of Kenya African National Union (KANU)
Hid detention during the Mau Mau uprising

25. Kenyatta release in 1961
He formed a coalition including radicals as well as his fellow Kikuyu kinsmen
KANU won the elections of 1963 and Kenyatta became the first president
Ethnic conflicts in Kenya
Domination of the Kikuyu
The main rival were the Lou
Ethnic violence in 1980s and 90s
Kenya’s last election Uhuru Kenyatta, who studied at Amherst College, became the president of Kenya