1. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
(Macromolecules)
Carbohydrates
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

2. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
Sugars & Starches
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

3. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate – organic compound containing carbon, hydrogen, & oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio
Meaning: “hydrated carbon”
ratio of h:0 is 2:1 (same as in water)
Source: plants (photosynthesis)
E.g. sugars & starches
Most abundant of 4 macromolecules
Main, primary energy source
easily digested
Found in all parts of cell
provide energy needed for normal body functions (i.e. heartbeat, breathing, digestion)
consume  digested into simple sugars (turned into blood sugar i.e. glucose)
during cellular respiration, breakdown of glucose occurs in order to release its stored energy
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

4. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
Simple Carbohydrates
Monosaccharide - simple carbohydrate (single, simple sugar)
Chemical formula: c6h12o6
Structure: hydroxyl (-oh) groups &
carbonyl (-c=o) group
Contain a great deal
of energy
e.g. glucose, galactose,
& fructose
More easily processed & require little work from the body to digest. Simple carbohydrates digested & turned into glucose faster than complex structures, which require slightly more digestion & so therefore take longer to turn to usable energy.
High in calories compared to nutritional content, & their thermic effect is very low (meaning: body does not expend much energy to digest this food, b/c process is easy).
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

5. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
Simple Carbohydrates
Examples:
Glucose
Produced by green plants
Galactose
found in milk
Fructose
Found in fruit
Same molecular formula (c6h12o6) but different arrangements of individual atoms (isomers)
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

6. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
Simple Carbohydrates
Structure
Linear or ring configuration
Hydroxyl group (-oh)
Attached to all carbon except 1
carbonyl group (-c=o)
Carbon without an attached hydroxyl group is double-bonded to an oxygen
All other available binding sites of carbon occupied by hydrogen atoms
Monosaccharide rings such as that of glucose are frequently depicted as a Haworth projection (diagram that suggests the 3-dimension orientation of attached -H, OH, & -C2OH groups in relation to the ring. However, the glucopyranose ring does not actually lie in a flat plane as suggested by this projection. Instead, the ends of the ring are bent up or down, most frequently in the "chair" conformation. More over, the side groups attached to the ring extend at the various angles, not at right angles as depicted in the Haworth projection.
The glucospyranose ring occurs in two forms that differ only in the orientation of the -OH group at the 1-carbon. In a Haworth projection -OH group points downward, in the alpha (a) form of the sugar, as in a-glucose. In the other form, the -OH group points upward from the ring in a beta (b) position of the sugar as in b-glucose. Although the difference between the two ring forms might seem trivial, it has great significance for the chemical properties of polysaccharides assembled from monsaccharide rings. For example. starches, which are assembled from a-glucose units, are soluble and easily digested. Cellulose, synthesized from b-glucose units, is insoluble and cannot be digested as a food source by most animals. The orientation of other groups attached to the carbon chain of carbohydrates also affects the properties and interactions of monosaccharides.
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

7. Linear, straight chain model 3D
Simple Carbohydrates
GLUCOSE
Animation Source:
Linear, straight chain model 3D
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

8. Linear, straight chain  ring Form
Simple Carbohydrates
GLUCOSE
When Solid: Linear, Straight Chain Structure
When in Water: Ring Structure
Animation Source:
Linear, straight chain  ring Form
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

9. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
Simple Carbohydrates
GLUCOSE
Image Source:
Linear Structure
Ring Structure
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

10. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

11. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

12. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
Simple Carbohydrates
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

13. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
Simple Carbohydrates
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

14. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
Simple Carbohydrates
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

15. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
Simple Carbohydrates
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

16. Complex Carbohydrates
Dehydration Synthesis – reaction in which small molecules join to form a large molecule, removing water in the process
Hydrogen (H) removed from 1 Monosaccharide & hydroxyl (Oh) removed from another
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

17. Complex Carbohydrates
Dehydration Synthesis – reaction in which small molecules join to form a large molecule, removing water in the process
Hydrogen (H) removed from 1 Monosaccharide & hydroxyl (Oh) removed from another
Animation Source:
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

18. Complex Carbohydrates
Disaccharide – double sugar formed from combination of 2 simple sugars
Molecular formula: C12H22O11
Formed from dehydration synthesis
Contain a (covalent) bond between carbon (C) of one sugar & a oxygen (O) at any position on other sugar
E.g. sucrose, lactose, & Maltose
*oligosaccharides – made of small number of monosaccharide units (2 to 10) joined together.
Oligosaccharides found in cell membranes & assist other membrane structures called glycolipids in cell recognition.
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

19. Complex Carbohydrates
Disaccharide – double sugar formed from combination of 2 simple sugars
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

20. Complex Carbohydrates
Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose (Table sugar)
commonly used by plants to transport sugar from 1 part of plant to another
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

21. Complex Carbohydrates
Glucose + galactose = lactose (milk sugar)
-OH on C-1 of 1 monosaccharide & -OH on C-4 of another monosaccharide collectively give up 2 H & 1 O to form water & are then joined together by remaining O
Why are some people lactose intolerant?
Once bond has formed between glucose & galactose monosaccharides to form lactose, as in milk, it takes a special enzyme, lactase to break this unusual bond. Some people’s bodies do not have the genetic code needed to manufacture lactase, thus they are unable to digest the lactose in dairy products. This undigested lactose passes through their digestive tract until it is eventually fermented by the bacteria that normally live in everyone’s large intestines. When this happens it often produces gas, and may cause the person to have cramps and other unpleasant symptoms. These people are called lactose intolerant (this is different than an allergy). To help these people, synthetic lactase is commercially available under several brand names. Also, some of these people may be able to eat yogurt, cheese, or other dairy products in which bacteria have already broken down the lactose.
Info & Image Source:
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

22. Complex Carbohydrates
Glucose + glucose = Maltose (malt sugar)
Image Source:
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

23. Complex Carbohydrates
Polysaccharide - large molecule formed when many monosaccharides link together
Composed of hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides joined together through dehydration synthesis
Most abundant of organic compounds
Functions: structural support & storage
E.g. starch, cellulose, & glycogen
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

24. Complex Carbohydrates
Examples:
Cellulose – forms cell wall of plants; cannot be digested by animals
Most animals that ingest grass or wood have special micro organisms living in their gut that digest the cellulose & animals in turn absorb the breakdown product
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

25. Complex Carbohydrates
Examples:
Starches (Found in plants) can be digested by animals
Glycogen – starch like compound produced by animals. In mammals glycogen is stored in liver & muscles where it provides a quick source of energy & serves as a storage substance for excess glucose taken up from blood.
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

26. Complex Carbohydrates
2 Major Types:
Storage polysaccharides – starches & related compounds in plants, & glycogen in animal liver & muscles. These giant molecules are made from repeating units of glucose in configuration, so they can all join together in a straight chain).
Structural polysaccharides - include cellulose & related compounds. Cellulose is found in plant cell walls and is the most abundant organic compound on Earth. This provides us with fiber in our diet, wood, and paper. Cellulose is formed from glucose in the configuration, and for the -1-4 glycosidic linkages to form, every other glucose molecule must flip up side down, as we saw in lactose. Our bodies, and the bodies of almost all other animals, do not have the necessary enzymes to break this -linkage, thus we cannot digest cellulose, and it is the fiber or bulk in our diet.
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

27. Complex Carbohydrates
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

28. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
Hydrolysis – catabolic reaction that splits apart molecules with the consumption of water
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

29. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
Hydrolysis – catabolic reaction that splits apart molecules with the consumption of water
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

30. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

31. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
hydrophillic
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

32. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
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Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates