1. Anatomy & Physiology I
Unit Two

2. Definitions Basic Chemistry
Matter – any thing that has mass and takes up space
Therefore – all organisms as well as the visible or unseen physical world around them are made of matter

3. Definitions Basic Chemistry
Atom – the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of the element
Element – a substance that cannot be changed into another substance

4. Atom Anatomy Electron – negative charge Neutron – neutral charge
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Neutron – neutral charge
Proton – positive charge

5. C 6 12.01 Periodic Chart Information Atomic Number (P#)
Chemical Symbol
Atomic Mass (P# + N#)

6. Atom Examples

7. Definitions Basic Chemistry
Isotopes –atoms of an element that have varying numbers of neutrons

8. Definitions Basic Chemistry
Molecule – a particle made up of two or more atoms bonded together
Diatomic molecule– two of the same type of atom bonded together such as O2 or N2

9. Definitions Basic Chemistry
Compound – a substance made up of two or more elements bonded together
Therefore – the smallest particle of a compound that retains its characteristics is a molecule (H2O or CO2)

10. Definitions Basic Chemistry
Ion – an atom that has given up or gained electrons to achieve stability
Cation – a positively charged ion that has given up electrons
Anion – a negatively charged ion that has gained electrons

11. Definitions Basic Chemistry
Electrolytes – salts that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting electricity
Therefore – electrolytes (ions) carry a positive or negative charge

12. Definitions Basic Chemistry
Free radical – a chemical particle carrying an odd number of electrons (O2-)
Explanation – free radicals are formed from metabolic reactions, by radiation or chemicals

13. Definitions Basic Chemistry
Free radical – a chemical particle carrying an odd number of electrons (O2-)
Explanation – free radicals quickly combine with other molecules converting them into free radicals which will destroy more molecules

14. Definitions Basic Chemistry
Antioxidant – a chemical that neutralizes free radicals
Explanation – the body produces enzymes to convert free radicals and antioxidants are obtained through the diet

15. Ionic Bonds
Bonds formed by the attraction between ions of opposite charges

16. Covalent Bonds
Bonds formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms

17. - a covalently bonded, polar molecule
Water
- a covalently bonded, polar molecule
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Molecules are said to be polar if they have slight opposite charges on either end

18. The slight attraction between the negative end of one molecule and the positive end of another results in a…
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19. The Relative Strengths of Chemical bonds
Covalent bonds
The undisputed champion!!!
Ionic bonds
The middleweight!!
The weakest!
Hydrogen bonds

20. Definitions Basic Chemistry
Acid – a compound that releases hydrogen (H+) ions in solution
Base – a compound that releases hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution

21. Definitions Basic Chemistry
Salt – an ionic compound that does not contain H+ or OH-, obtained from an acid/base reaction
Buffer – a chemical system that resists large changes in pH by taking up or giving off H+

22. Acid-Base Reaction HCl + KOH KCl + H2O Cl- K+ H+ OH- Acid Base Salt
Water
HCl +
KOH
KCl +
H2O
Cl- K+ H+
OH-

23. Definitions Basic Chemistry
pH – the measurement of the H+ concentration in a solution

24. pH – the measurement of the H+ concentration in solution

25. Buffers
Remember – a buffer is a chemical system that resists large changes in pH by taking up or giving off H+
Therefore, a buffer is a homeostatic mechanism that helps to regulate the pH of blood and other body fluids

26. Buffers The pH range of blood is 7.35-7.45
It is extremely important that blood stay in this narrow range, making buffering systems necessary

27. Buffers The body has two types of buffering systems: < chemical
< physiological
A chemical buffer is a substance that removes or releases H+ from a system by binding to them or releasing them

28. Buffers
A physiological buffer is a system that stabilizes pH by controlling the body’s output of acids, bases & CO2
The two systems that act as physiological buffers are the respiratory and urinary systems

29. Chemical Buffers The bicarbonate buffering system
CO2 + H2O H2CO HCO3- + H+
The phosphate buffering system
H2 PO HPO42- + H+

30. Chemical Buffers The protein buffering system - COOH - COO- + H+ OR
- NH2 + H NH3+

31. Physiological Buffers
The respiratory system is a two to three times stronger buffering system than chemical buffers
The bicarbonate buffering system
CO2 + H2O H2CO HCO3- + H+

32. Physiological Buffers
The urinary system is most powerful buffering system in the body
H+ are secreted from the blood into kidney tubules where they bind with HCO3-, HPO42- or ammonia

33. Physiological Buffers
The bound and free H+ are then excreted in the urine
The removal of free H+ is what makes this buffering system so powerful

34. Buffering Overview

35. Buffering Overview

36. - a covalently bonded, polar molecule
Water
- a covalently bonded, polar molecule
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Molecules are said to be polar if they have slight opposite charges on either end

37. The slight attraction between the negative end of one molecule and the positive end of another results in a…
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38. Water - Polarity leads to adhesion and cohesion
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- Polarity leads to adhesion and cohesion
Adhesion and cohesion lead to capillary action and surface tension
- High specific heat leads to temperature stability
- High heat of vaporization leads to evaporative cooling

39. Water
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- Spheres of hydration form electrostatic interactions, keeping ions from interacting with each other
- This characteristic means water has a high degree of solvency and chemical reactivity

40. Water
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- Water also ionizes into H+ and OH- which can be incorporated into other molecules or released from them

41. Water

42. Organic Chemistry The four types of organic compounds Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids

43. Carbohydrates The general formula is CH2O
The monomers are monosaccharides
Functions:
Provide energy
Structural uses
Examples:
Plants - starch, cellulose Animals - glycogen, chitin

44. Lipids Functional group – COOH- (carboxyl)
The monomers are fatty acids and alcohols
Functions:
Storage energy
Structural uses
Regulation
Protection

45. Lipids
Examples:
Fats (triglycerides)
Phospholipids
Steroids
Waxes

46. Lipids
The two types of fatty acids
Saturated
Unsaturated

47. Proteins Two functional groups – COOH- (carboxyl) and NH2- (amine)
The monomers are amino acids
Functions:
Structural uses
Regulation
Protection
Provide energy

48. Proteins
Examples:
Collagen
Hormones
Enzymes
Antibodies

49. Nucleic Acids The monomers are nucleotides Functions: Heredity
Nitrogen base
Functions:
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Heredity
Protein synthesis
Phosphate group
Pentose sugar

50. Nucleic Acids Examples: Double stranded, double helix molecule
Single stranded with three forms – tRNA, rRNA, and mRNA
DNA
RNA

51. Adenosine triphosphate The fuel of living cells
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate
The fuel of living cells

52. Definitions
Dehydration synthesis – the assembling of organic molecules by extracting water
Hydrolysis – the breaking up of organic molecules using water

53. The Metabolism
of Macromolecules

54. Enzymes
Proteins that function as biological catalysts by lowering the energy of activation and speeding up chemical processes
Enzymes are substrate specific, much like a lock and key
Enzymes catalyze reactions without being changed

55. Enzymes
How they work!

56. Enzymes
How they work!

57. Temperature effects on enzymes
pH effects on enzymes
Temperature effects on enzymes