1. Master Lecture on reflection and metacognition
By Dominic Brockway

2. Aims
To introduce trainees to reflection and metacognition

3. Learning Outcomes All Learners will:
Engage in debate and share examples from personal experience of metacognition and reflective practice
Complete Brookfield’s critical incident questionnaire.
Some Learners may:
Apply a model of reflection to own experience and
relate this back to the class. .

4. What is Metacognition?
Metacognition is thinking about how we think, about how we know, and about how we learn. Robin Fogarty (1994), in How to Teach for Metacognitive Reflection, defines metacognition as "thinking about thinking." She adds that "to have awareness and control over your own thinking one may plan metacognitively, monitor progress metacognitively, or evaluate metacognitively. Thus, the three areas, planning, monitoring, and evaluating provide the appropriate framework for self-reflection."

5. What is reflection?
Moon defines reflective practice as “a set of abilities and skills, to indicate the taking of a critical stance, an orientation to problem solving or state of mind” (1999: 63).
This encapsulates the wide range of activities associated with thinking about your learning. Cowan suggests that learners are reflecting in an educational sense “when they analyse or evaluate one or more personal experiences, and attempt to generalise from that thinking” (1999: 18).

6. Levels of Depth within Reflection
Surface
Level 1
Descriptive Writing
Level 2
Descriptive account with some reflection
Level 3
Reflective writing 1 -
Level 4
Reflective writing 2 -
Moon, J. (2004)
where there is a willingness to be critical of the action of self or others with some self questioning
-Where a metacognitive stance is taken, the view of others is taken into account and the role of emotion in the art of reflection is understood.
Deep
1 Descriptive…tells a story
2. Description with some basic reflection- some questioning – standing back – reflection does not go deep enough to enable the learing to begin..
3 Reflective writing.. Not description- focus is on an attempt to reflect on the event and learn from it- more analysis of the situation..However no realisation that reflection is affected by your own frame of reference at the time or now- no sense of of going beyond and checking out the possibility that your frame of reference might be affected by your prior experiences
4. Level 4- Reflective writing 2… Shows evidence of ‘standing back’.. Internal dialogue with one self.. Evidence of looking at the views of others and considering an alternative viewpoint..significance of the passage of time..personal frame of reference has influenced actions..reconstructing the event in retrospect..things to be learned from the situation..reflect on ones own process of reflection acting metacognitively recognising that one’s own process influenced the outcome….

7. A short video summary of metacognition:

8. 3 areas essential to metacognition
We know that our teaching is improved by careful planning (future), by monitoring our craft (present), and by evaluation (past). Developing these self-reflective practices is at the heart of metacognition leading to the construction of individual meaning.
Our students also need to develop metacognitive strategies to improve their learning, and we can help them with this process by weaving metacognitive practices into our classroom teaching.

9. Metacognition is key to informed practice
“...the need for teachers to understand the reasons behind their instructional choices, to be able to explain why they do what they do. Principled practice implies that while there are no absolute answers or sure solutions to most of the dilemmas of teaching, teachers must try to connect their choice of instructional activities to their understanding of the underlying purposes for the teaching of English,” (Grossman, 1990, p. 121).
Like the English teacher cited by Grossman, we seek to foster in trainees the ability to explain why they do what they do in the classroom.

10. So, I know what metacognition and reflection are, but what is critical reflection?
Stephen Brookfield (1995), in Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher, describes critical reflection as a process of "hunting assumptions." He defines assumptions as "the taken for granted beliefs about the world, and our place within it, that seem so obvious to us as not to need to be stated explicitly"

11. An improvement in what ‘might be’.
However, as Biggs points out, “a reflection in a mirror is an exact replica of what is in front of it. Reflection in professional practice, however, gives back not what it is, but what might be, an improvement on the original” (Biggs, 1999: 6).

12. Reflection in Action
This is the teacher ‘thinking on his or her feet’, being spontaneous, creative and unique. The professional builds up a repertoire of knowledge and skills through reflection in action. There will be an ongoing purposeful reflection in action. Schön, D. (1983)

13. Single Loop learning
According to Argyris and Schön (1974), single-loop learning involves the detection and correction of error. Where something goes wrong, it is suggested that you would work within the existing system to find a solution to the problem.
You work within the accepted goals, values, plans and rules. These are put into action rather than questioned.
Often described as a landmark theory

14. Double Loop learning
Double-loop learning is an educational concept developed by Argyris and Schön (1974). It is the process that involves teaching people to think more deeply about their own assumptions and beliefs.
Double-loop learning is different than single-loop learning which involves changing methods and improving efficiency to obtain established objectives Double-loop learning concerns changing the objectives themselves.
Questioning goals, values, plans and rules. Have you ever failed to deliver in a task set in your workplace? This can prompt meta work.
Meta-work occurs anytime we step back from our regular activities to ask larger questions, like "Why do we do this task this way?" or even "Why do we do this task at all?“
Examples : Learning styles
Maslow’s hierarchy of Needs – Sujata Mitra in India
Business Skills workshop and schemes of work
Initial assessments of Maths and English but no IT

15. The critically reflective piece we have just read is an example of double loop learning. Which assumptions did I question?
Source of image: What does the teaching and learning cycle look like? [online] Available at: [Accessed 22 January 2013].

16. KOLB’s learning cycle Engage with/observe experience
Reflection – feelings about the story/previous stories
Theorise – What does the ‘story’ mean? Enable user to explore the context of experience
Plans and actions – Identify goals, plans and services. What’s the next chapter in the story?
Source of image: What does the teaching and learning cycle look like? [online] Available at: [Accessed 22 January 2013].

17. Exercise
Tutor to relay experience of different stages of cycle.

18. Stephen Brookfield Lenses on own practice….. -Our own eyes
Our students’ eyes
Our colleagues’ eyes
Research and theory.
(Brookfield, 1995)
Question: What opportunities do we have to look through each of these lenses?

19. Self Lens:
“ Analysing our own autobiographies as learners has important implications for how we teach. The insights and meanings we draw from these experiences is likely to have a profound and long lasting influence”
“We often collude in our own devaluing of our autobiography. If our autobiographical experience tells us one thing, but the professional ethos of our field tells us another, we usually put our trust in the latter.”
Brookfield (1998) .

20. Why do we need to look beyond ourselves?
No matter how creative I might be in taking mental leaps and looking back on experiences from unfamiliar vantage points, I am always trapped inside my own meaning schemes and perspectives (Mezirow, 1991)

21. Student lens
“Often we are profoundly surprised by the diversity of meanings students read into our words and actions. Comments we made incidentally that had no particular significance to us are heard as imperatives. Responses we gave off the cuff to what seemed like inconsequential questions return to haunt us.” “The chief difficulty with seeing ourselves through adult learners' eyes lies in the fact that they are often wary about being too honest with us. They have probably learned in school that giving honest commentary on a teacher's actions can backfire horribly. Teachers who say they welcome criticism of their actions vary widely in how they respond when it is actually expressed” Brookfield,1998
Example of student and “proper job”

22. Get inside students’ heads
“This is why, in my opinion, the most fundamental metacriterion for judging whether or not good teaching is happening is the extent to which teachers deliberately and systematically try to get inside students’ heads and see classrooms and learning from their point of view.”  (Brookfield, p.35)

23. Some practical examples of ways to see through our students’ eyes
Student evaluations Assessment answers and results student journals student focus groups interview responses Critical incident questionnaire One minute paper Muddiest point Clickers

24. Colleagues’ lens
“We start to see that what we thought were unique problems and idiosyncratic failings are shared by many others who work in situations like ours. Just knowing that we're not alone in our struggles can be a life-saving realisation. Although critical reflection on experience often begins alone it is, ultimately, a collective endeavour. “
Stephen Brookfield (1998)

25. Some practical examples of ways to see through our colleagues eyes
Team teaching
Critical reflection groups
Reciprocal peer review

26. Literature lens
(Horton & Freire, 1990): "Reading is one of the ways I can get the theoretical illumination of practice in a certain moment. If I don't get that, do you know what can happen? We as popular educators begin to walk in a circle, without the possibility of going beyond that circle ..." (p. 98)”
By studying ideas, activities and theories that have sprung from situations outside our circle of practice, we gain insight into those features of our work that are context-specific, and those that are more generic. Embedded as we are in our cultures, histories and contexts, it is easy for us to slip into the habit of generalising from the particular.

27. Some practical examples of ways to see through Literature
Teachers who research literature Teachers who present literature Teachers who publish literature

28. Source of image: [online] Available at:
[Accessed 22 January 2013].

29. Question: Does anyone think that some of this theory has nothing to do with your practice?
“In their enthusiasm for working experientially, adult educators often downplay the significance of theoretical literature. They view it as disenfranchising—a form of high-status discourse that stands in direct opposition to adults' own voices and concerns. Journal articles are seen by many practitioners as irrelevant musings by a cadre of protected and elitist academics. Sometimes this judgement is quite accurate. But to condemn all theoretical literature as beyond the pale is premature.”
Brookfield (1998)

30. How does theory contribute to our practice as teachers?
(Horton & Freire, 1990) puts it like this: "when I meet some books—I say 'meet' because some books are like persons—when I meet some books, I remake my practice theoretically. I become better able to understand the theory inside of my action" (p. 36).

31. Transformative learning (Mezirow, 1991)
Learning is the social process of constructing and appropriating a new or revised interpretation of the meaning of one’s experience as a guide to action. Mezirow suggests that learners experience personal and intellectual growth when they:
Source of image:
[Accessed 22 January 2013].

32. Transformative learning - additional perspectives and disorientating dilemmas
Perspective transformation leading to transformative learning occurs infrequently. Mezirow believes that it usually results from a ’disorienting dilemma’, which is triggered by a life crisis or major life transition, although it may also result from an accumulation of transformations in meaning schemes over a period of time. Less dramatic predicaments, such as those created by a teacher, also promote transformation. (Mezirow, 1991)

33. Why colleges succeed
A distinction ‘of these very good teachers is that their practice is the result of careful reflection …They themselves learn lessons each time they teach, evaluating what they do and using these self-critical evaluations to adjust what they do next time. (Why Colleges succeed, Ofsted 2004, Para 19)

34. Extension activities
Turn-it-In Access
Academic Poster creation video

35. Feedback
Brookfield’s critical incident questionnaire to be completed at the end of this session and results shared with you at your next teaching session.

36. References
Argyris, M. and Schön, D. (1974) Theory in Practice. Increasing professional effectiveness, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Biggs, J (1999) Teaching for quality learning at university. Buckingham: Open University
Brookfield, S. “Against Naïve Romanticism: From Celebration to the Critical Analysis of Experience.” Studies in Continuing Education, 1998, 20(2), pp. 127– 142
Brookfield (1998). Critically Reflective Practice. The Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions. 18, pp
Cowan, J (1999) On Becoming an Innovative University Teacher: Reflection in Action . SRHE and Open University Press
Double Loop Learning - Reflection for Learning Double Loop Learning - Reflection for Learning. [ONLINE] Available at: [Accessed 22 January 2013].
Horton, M., & Freire, P. (1990). We make the road by walking: Conversations on education and social change. Philadelphia: Temple University Press

37. Kemmis, S.(1985) Action Research and the Politics of Reflection in Boud, D. Keogh, R. & Walker, D. eds. Reflection: Turning experience into Learning. Kogan Page pp
Kolb D. (1984). Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
MOON J (1999) Reflection in Learning and Professional Development: theory and practice London. Kogan Morgan 
Mezirow, J (1997). Transformative learning: Theory to practice. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. Jossey Bass.
Schön, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner. How professionals think in action, London: Temple Smith.
Smith, M. K. (2001) 'Chris Argyris: theories of action, double-loop learning and organizational learning', the encyclopedia of informal education, update: May 29, 2012

38. Useful web links
Kolb on experiential learning [ONLINE] Available at: [Accessed 22 January 2013]. Gibbs reflective cycle, [ONLINE] Available at: [Accessed 22 January 2013]. Brookfield Critical lenses, [ONLINE] Available at: Brookfield critical incident questionnaire, [ONLINE] Available at: [Accessed 22 January 2013].

39. Useful web links continued
One minute paper, [ONLINE] Available at: [Accessed 22 January 2013].
Classroom Assessment Technique: Muddiest Point - YouTube. [ONLINE] Available at: [Accessed 22 January 2013].
Ofsted: Resources [ONLINE] Available at: [Accessed 22 January 2013].