1. A Brief History of the Study of Human Anatomy

2. Pre Mummification
Before mummification evolved, the corpse was placed in a sleeping fetal position and put into a pit, along with personal items such as clay pots and jewelry.
The pit was covered with sand, which absorbed all the water from the body, thus preserving it.

3. Early Egyptians Perfected the science of mummification.
Major organs were removed and placed in canopic jars.
Body cavity was filled with a “sawdust-like” material, leaves and linen.
Body was wrapped in linen cloth shrouds.

4. 3000 B.C. Egyptian Mummy

5. Egyptians First to keep accurate health records
Wrote prescriptions on papyrus
Physicians were priests
Temples were used as
places of worships,
medical schools, and
hospitals

6. Egyptians (3000 BC- 300 BC)
Leeches would be use for bloodletting (draining human blood)
Does not hurt because their saliva contains a natural anesthetic
Their saliva also contains a blood thinner, a vasodilator, and an agent that prevents bacteria from infecting the wound
FDA has recently approved use of leeches as a medical treatment (more about this later)

7. Alexandria, Egypt
The study of anatomy flourished in Alexandria between B.C.
Only criminals were allowed to be dissected because these early cultures were very superstitious and believed that an intact body was necessary for a successful afterlife.

8. Ancient Chinese (1700 BC–AD 220)
Religion prohibited dissection
Believed you had to treat both the body and spirit
Recorded a pharmacopoeia of medications based on herbs
Therapies included acupuncture

9. Cupping
Cupping is an ancient Chinese practice that involves placing a cup over the skin and using fire or suction to create a vacuum within the cup which draws the skin and superficial muscle layer into the cup.

10. The theory behind cupping is that it increases the blood flow and lymphatic drainage in the areas being treated and therefore promotes healing. 
It is also thought that cupping can help to re-expand the lungs in disease states.

11. Greeks (1200 BC –200 BC)
Made observations about the human body and the effects of disease that led to modern medical sciences
Believed illness is a result of natural causes

12. History of Anatomy (Greece)
The Greeks were the first to attempt to study objectively the human body. That is why many medical terms are based on the Greek language.

13. Greeks
Used therapies such as massage, art therapy and herbal treatments
Discovered that diet and cleanliness could prevent disease

14. Hippocrates(460B.C.-377B.C.)
Hippocrates is know as the “Father of Medicine.” He is considered one of the greatest physicians the world has ever known.
He was the first to attempt to separate the practice of medicine from religion and superstition.
Hippocrates developed his pledge of proper conduct for doctors. “I will use treatment to help the sick according to my ability and judgment, but never with the view to injury and wrong doing…Into whatsoever houses I enter, I will enter to help the sick.”

15. History of Anatomy (Greece)
Believed that air flowed into the heart

16. History of Anatomy (Greece)
Hippocrates
Notion of the four humors

17. History of Anatomy (Greece)
Hippocrates - THE FOUR HUMORS
Blood was thought to come from the heart
Phlegm from the brain
Yellow bile from the liver
Black bile from the spleen
The Greeks believed that a person would be healthy if these humors were in balance.

18. The 4 Humors coincided with the four elements recognized by the Greeks
The temperaments are sanguine (pleasure-seeking and sociable), choleric (ambitious and leader-like), melancholic (introverted and thoughtful), and phlegmatic (relaxed and quiet).

19. Figure 1. Early Greek Model of Elements & Humors

20. History of Anatomy (Greece)
Hippocrates
- The foundation of the principles of medical ethics.
- Hippocrates was the first to separate medicine from philosophy and disprove the idea that disease was a punishment for sin.

21. History of Anatomy (Greece)
Hippocrates BC
Father of Medicine
gives his name to the Hippocratic oath that doctors take.
Air flowed into the heart
Notion of the four humors

22. More on Bloodletting……..

23. The practice of bloodletting seemed logical when the foundation of all medical treatment was based on the four body humors: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile.
Health was thought to be restored by purging, starving, vomiting or bloodletting

24. Bloodletting is one of the oldest medical practices, having been practiced among ancient peoples including the Egyptians and the Greeks.

25. Bloodletting 15th Century

26. Text book of Bloodletting

27. The barber poles that we may still see today are a result of these ancient blood letting practices.

28. By the middle ages, both surgeons and barbers were specializing in this bloody practice. Barbers advertised their blood letting practices with a red (for blood) and white (for tourniquet) striped pole. The pole itself represented the stick squeezed by the patient to dilate the veins.
By the end of the 19th century ( ), phlebotomy was declared quackery.

29. Did blood letting lead to the final demise of our 1st president?

30. On December 14, 1799, George Washington contracted an illness that inflamed his throat. His health deteriorated rapidly.
Doctors tried to treat him by bloodletting, a common medical procedure during this time period for most types of ailments.
After being drained of 3.75 liters of blood within 24 hours, his illness and the bloodletting weakened him, and he died later that same day. (Adults have 5.6 liters of blood)

31. Leeches and Bloodletting
Most people today regard leeches as disgusting, but for centuries these blood-sucking creatures were a mainstay of medical care. Derived from the Anglo-Saxon word loece, to heal (Medieval doctors called themselves leeches).
The leech was used as an adjunct to bloodletting, in places too sensitive or confined for the lancet or other blood-letting instruments. Physicians applied leeches to areas such as "the gums, lips, nose,and fingers“.

32. Leeches became popular in the 19th century -- so much so that the species became endangered in Europe. In 1833 alone, French doctors imported 41,500,000 leeches. Eventually the procedure was largely abandoned, along with other forms of bloodletting.

33. The leech was indispensable in 19th Century medicine for bloodletting, a practice believed to be a cure for anything from headache to gout. As the use of leeches increased many pharmacists became responsible for their care and dispensation.

34. Today leeches have found renewed utility in certain surgical procedures, particularly after microsurgery. Doctors sometimes find it helpful, for example, to use leeches to restore circulation to a re-attached finger or other small body parts, or to portions of the skin following plastic surgery.

35. Leeches Used in Medicine
Successful reattachment of severed ear, as blood continued to flow and carry nutrients to the damaged region

36. Back to the History of Anatomy and Physiology ….

37. History of Anatomy (Greece)
Aristotle
Contemporary of Hippocrates

38. History of Anatomy (Greece)
Aristotle
-Along with his contemporary scientist-philosophers, Aristotle thought arteries contained air and veins carried blood.  He had other "strange" ideas but was roughly accurate as far as the general anatomy of the human body.  
-Recognized that bodies are made of parts, which in turn are made of simpler parts

39. History of Anatomy (Greece)
Aristotle
- Recognized that similar organs in different organisms probably have similar functions
- Thought the brain cooled the body and the heart heated it
- Thought that the heart was the location of the mind, will, and emotions

40. History of Anatomy (Greece)
Herophilus
- Father of Anatomy
Founded first school of anatomy
Encouraged the use of dissection in the study of anatomy
Identified heart as the origin of the human pulse

41. Roman Influence
In 30 B.C. Alexandria was conquered by the Roman Empire.
The Romans were interested in power, wealth and military strength, not in anatomical studies.
Romans outlawed anatomical studies and human dissections.

42. Roman Empire

43. Galen of Pergamen
Perhaps one of the brightest spots in the early history of anatomy was the work of a Greek physician named Galen ( A.D.).
Galen had been trained in the Alexandrian tradition and wanted to further the scientific study of the human body.

44. Galen of Pergamen A.D.

45. Galen’s Work
Because human dissections were outlawed by the Romans, Galen wrote an anatomy textbook based on his dissections of the Barbary ape, a primate similar to man.
While the text was helpful it had many inaccuracies.

46. The Barbary Ape

47. Title Page of Galen’s Anatomy Text

48. Illustration from Galen’s Text

49. Galen’s Influence
Galen’s anatomy textbook, based on the dissection of the Barbary ape, became the accepted authority on human anatomy for 1300 years!
How could this be?

50. The Dark Ages (400 – 1100 A.D.)
Barbarians from Asia, such as Attila and the Huns, overran and destroyed the Roman Empire.
Many of the scientific writings were destroyed.

51. Dark Ages
Fortunately some of these documents were salvaged by the Moslems and translated into their language, Arabic.

52. Rediscovery
About 1100 A.D., Christian scholars discovered these Arabic translations and began the slow process of translating them into Latin.
This exposed a wealth of lost and forgotten information.
Not until the 16th century were these works finally translated.

53. First Autopsy
In the year 1286 we have reference to a human dissection being performed to determine the cause of death.
Today, this procedure is called an autopsy.

54. Rise of Medical Schools
By the early 1300’s anatomical studies were again becoming fashionable.
In the medical schools in Italy anatomy professors were highly respected figures and so they would sit in large throne-like chairs, wear academic robes, and read from the re-translated text of Galen.

55. Rise of Medical Schools
Barbers actually performed the dissections on human subjects while students stood and observed.
Students were not allowed to participate in the dissections.

56. A Major Contribution
During the early Renaissance years, artists, sculptors and painters strove to make their artwork as human and life-like as possible.
To do this, they had to study human anatomy on a first-hand basis; that is, they had to perform their own human dissections.

57. A Major Contribution
One of the most famous of these Renaissance artists was Leonardo DaVinci.
His anatomically accurate drawings gave to anatomists for the first time illustrations with correct anatomical proportions and great attention to detail.

58. DaVinci’s “Last Supper”

59. Mona Lisa

60. Leonardo’s Anatomy Drawings

61. Leonardo’s Anatomy Drawings

62. Andreas Vesalius
The man who revolutionized the study of anatomy was Andreas Vesalius.
He realized that to learn anatomy students needed to be involved with the dissections.
He also realized that Galen’s textbook was severely flawed and must be replaced.

63. Andreas Vesalius
Vesalius revolutionized the study of anatomy by doing away with the barbers, instead doing human dissections himself and having students assist instead of just observe.
He also published his own anatomy textbook which contained many anatomically accurate drawings based on human dissections.

64. De Humani Corporis Fabrica (1543)

65. De Humani Corporis Fabrica

66. De Humani Corporis Fabrica

67. De Humani Corporis Fabrica

68. Killing Sacred Cows
Vesalius introduced the idea of “killing sacred cows”, that is, challenging accepted authority for the purpose of improving it.
Because of his revolutionary work at the University of Padua, Andreas Vesalius is considered to be the “Father of Modern Anatomy”

69. Fabricius
Vesalius was replaced at the University of Padua by a man named Fabricius.
Fabricius discovered the presence of one-way valves in veins, he called them the “little doors”.

70. “Little Doors”

71. William Harvey
The English physician, William Harvey, a student of Fabricius, became interested in the circulation of the blood.
Harvey was the first person to describe the heart as a pump for blood and he also described arteries and veins as blood vessels that carry blood throughout the body.

72. William Harvey
Harvey showed that “function can be inferred from structure” and thus became known as the “Father of Physiology”.

73. Marcello Malpighi
With the development of the microscope, the Italian anatomist, Marcello Malpighi was able to see the tiny blood vessels that Harvey could not see but had predicted their presence.
These tiny vessels Malpighi named “capillaries”, which means “hair-like” in Latin.

74. 19th Century Anatomy Body Snatching Resurrection men (grave robbers)
Burke and Hare

75. During 1827 and 1828, Burke and Hare brought a new dimension to the trade of selling corpses "to the doctors" by murdering rather than grave-robbing and supplying their victims' fresh corpses for medical dissection. Their activities, and those of the London Burkers who imitated them, resulted in the passage of the Anatomy Act of 1832.

76. Anatomy Act 1832
- is an Act of parliament of the United Kingdom that gave freer license to doctors, teachers of anatomy and bona fide medical students to dissect donated bodies. It was enacted in response to public revulsion at the illegal trade in corpses.

77. 19th Century
Histology
Developmental biology

78. 20th & 21st Century Anatomy
Evolutionary and molecular biology Medical imaging Pathology Endocrinology DNA

79. TOOLS THAT HAVE IMPROVED THE STUDY OF ANATOMY

80. BRAINSTORM WITH YOUR NEIGHBOR
TOOLS THAT HAVE IMPROVED THE STUDY OF ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, & LEARNING ABOUT THE HUMANB BODY
BRAINSTORM WITH YOUR NEIGHBOR
List 6 important tools in the field of medicine, physiology and anatomy.

81. Improved microscopy

86. PET stands for Positron Emission Tomography.
PET scanners
PET stands for Positron Emission Tomography. 
This is a fairly new type of scan that can show how body tissues are working and not just what they look like. 
A PET scan can show the difference between scar tissue and active cancer tissue.

87. PET produces images of the body by detecting the radiation emitted from radioactive substances. These substances are injected into the body, and are usually tagged with a radioactive atom.

90. A PET scan demonstrates the biological function of the body before anatomical changes take place, while the CT scan provides information about the body's anatomy such as size, shape and location.
By combining these two scanning technologies, a PET/CT scan enables physicians to more accurately diagnose and identify cancer, heart disease and brain disorders.

91. IMAGE FUSION
Utilizing a dedicated imaging workstation, we are able to overlay PET data with CT/MRI images, allowing precise localization of tumor
CT/MRI PET

95. ENDOSCOPY - A thin, lighted tube used to look at tissues inside the body.

96. ENDOSCOPY
A wireless endoscopy system in a capsule provides real-color images of the GI tract after the patient swallows the device.

97. ORGAN AND BODY DONATION

112. Anyone been to this show?

113. And now for the ultimate body donation
THE BODY FARM
The first body farm (officially known as the University of Tennessee Forensic Anthropology Facility) was opened in Bass recognized the need for research into human decomposition after police repeatedly asked for his help analyzing bodies in criminal cases.