1. Motivation and Emotion
Based on Barron’s AP Psych Test Prep
Cerepak 2016

2. Why do people do what they do?
Motivation theories attempts to answer that question directly!
Motivations are feelings or ideas that cause us to act toward a goal
Some are obvious and conscious
Some are subtle

3. Theories of Motivation
After Darwin’s theory of natural selection was published, psychologists tried unsuccessfully to explain ALL human behavior as a series of instincts
Ethologists examine the role that evolution plays in human thought and behavior.
Psychologists agree that our behavior is motivated by biological and psychological factors

4. Drive Reduction Theory
The theory that our behavior is motivated by biological needs (food, water)
Drive: our impulses to act in a certain way that satisfies a need.
Need: food
Drive: hunger
We want to reduce our drive, so we eat!

5. Homeostasis: A balanced internal state
When we are out of our homeostasis, we have a need that creates a drive.
Primary Drives: Satisfy biological needs like thirst
Secondary Drives: learned drives (learn that money can satisfy a primary need-food)
But how might this theory explain the need for speed?

6. Arousal Theory Some motivations violate biological theories
Arousal Theory: explains behavior as the consequence of our desire to seek optimum excitement or arousal
We all have different needs for arousal levels and we are drawn to activities that help us achieve that level.

7. Yerkes- Dodson Law
In general, most of us perform best with an optimum level of arousal, although it can vary with activities.
High level of arousal+easy task= perform well
High level of arousal+difficult task= poor performance

8. Opponent-Process Theory of Motivation
Usually used to explain addictive behaviors
People are usually at a baseline state, then we perform an act to move us away from the baseline (smoking a cigarette).
Opponent-Process: we want to get back to baseline to feel normal again.
Withdrawal: uncomfortable feeling of withdrawal again takes us away from baseline and we smoke to feel “normal” again”

9. Incentive Theory
Incentives are stimuli that we are drawn to due to learning
Associate stimuli with reward and punishment, therefore, we are motivated to seek the reward.
Who would agree with this?

10. Maslow Revisited

11. Influences on Eating Behavior

12. Hunger Motivation Biological Basis of Hunger:
1) We report feeling hungry when our stomachs are empty and contracts
2) Hypothalamus: monitors and helps control body chemistry (ratio of glucose and insulin).
-Lateral Hypothalamus: causes us to eat: effect of lesion?
-Ventromedial hypothalamus: stops us from eating. Effect of Lesion?
3) Set-point theory: controversial view of hunger that we have an optimum weight. When we drop below this weight, our hypothalamus tells us we should eat and lowers our metabolic rate (how quickly our body uses energy)
-some believe that weight maintenance has more to do with learning and cognition.

13. Psychological Factors in Hunger Motivation
Externals: Motivated to eat by external food cues, such as attractiveness and availability of food
Internals: respond to internal hunger cues
Culture and background affect our food preferences
Memory of eating last
Garcia Effect: classical conditioning with food.
-getting sick from a certain food and avoiding it in the future.

14. Sexual Motivation
Sexual motivations are vital for the continuation of any species
One of the primary tasks for most living organisms if reproduction.
Sex is motivated by biological and psychological factors

15. Masters and Johnson
William Masters and Virginia Johnson were the first (and highly controversial) researchers of sex.
They used medical equipment to measure the body’s response to sexual arousal and even watched around 10,000 people have intercourse as part of their studies.

16. Sexual Response Cycle
Humans sexual response cycle progress through four stages as outlined by Masters and Johnson:
1) Initial excitement: Genital areas become engorged with blood, penis becomes erect, clitoris swells, respiration and heart rate increase.
2) Plateau Phase: Respiration and heart rate continue at an elevated level, genitals secrete fluids in preparation for intercourse.
3) Orgasm: Rhythmic, genital contractions that may help conception, respiration and heart rate further, males ejaculate often accompanied by a pleasurable euphoria
4) Resolution Phase: Respiration and heart rate return to normal resting states, men experience a refractory period-a time period that must elapse before another orgasm, women do not have a similar refractory period and can repeat the cycle immediately.

17. Psychological Factors in Sexual Motivation
Our sexual desire is not strictly motivated by hormones.
It is controlled by psychological factors to a great extent.
The interaction between our physiology and psychology creates the myriad of sexual desires we see in society and ourselves.

18. Sexual Orientation
Researchers like Alfred Kinsey documented the variety of sexual behaviors in the famous Kinsey Reports.
The reports dispelled common myths about what it means to be homosexual:
It is not related to a traumatic childhood experience, parenting styles, the quality of relationships with parents, masculinity or femininity, or whether we are raised by heterosexual or homosexual parents.

19. Sexual Orientation Cont’d
Some possible biological influences have been found:
Specific brain structures might vary in size in homosexuals when compared to the same structure in heterosexual people
Twin studies indicate that genetic influence on sexual orientation since an identical twin is much more likely to be homosexual if her twin is homosexual (but as well now know- twin studies might not be perfect.)

20. Social Motivation
What motivates the more complicated behaviors, such as taking the AP Psych Exam?
Your attitudes
Goals
The society you live in
The people you surround yourself with

21. Achievement Motivation
Achievement motivation is different than optimum arousal. Achievement motivation involves meeting personal goals and acquiring new knowledge or skills whereas optimum arousal indicates the general level of arousal a person is motivated to seek.
Examines our desire to master complex tasks and knowledge and to reach personal goals.
Humans are motivated to figure out the world regardless of whether the knowledge is actually useful
Achievement motivation varies from person to person and activity to activity

22. Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
Rewards that we get from outside ourselves
Grades
Salary
Rewards we get internally
Enjoyment
Satisfaction

23. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Cont’d
Applying Knowledge of Types of Motivation
Knowing what type of motivation an individual responds to can give managers and other leaders insight into what strategies will be most effective for motivating employees
Extrinsic Motivation is great for short term achievement and appraisal; however, the motivation and desired behavior will fade over time.
Intrinsic Motivation is needed to continue the desired behavior.

24. Management Theory Applying Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
Theory X
Theory Y
Managers believe that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment
Managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motivation
Cross-Cultural studies show the benefits of moving from a Theory X attitude about employees to a Theory Y attitude. Some companies hire consultants to help managers promote intrinsic motivation.

25. When Motives Conflict
Ever find yourself conflicted about making decisions?
Psychologists discuss four types of motivational conflicts.
Approach-Approach Conflict: choosing between two desirable outcomes.
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict: choosing between two unattractive outcomes.
Approach-Avoidance Conflict: one event has both + and – features
Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict: two or more events have both + and – features
Can you come up with examples of each conflict?

26. Emotion Our emotional state is closely related to our motivation.
Can you imagine wanting to do a behavior without an accompanying feeling about the action?
Motivation influences Emotions
Emotions influence Motivation
A few theories try to explain our emotional experiences…
How are you feeling today?

27. Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition
Someone cuts you off on the road. You may feel the emotion of anger. Emotions are a mix of:
How do these components of emotion interact and relate to each other?
Do our thoughts trigger our emotions, or are they a product of our emotions?
How are the bodily signs triggered?
How do we decide which emotion we’re feeling?
1) Expressive behavior:
yelling, accelerating
2) Bodily arousal:
sweat, pounding heart
Click to show three boxes and text on the right.
Instructor, this definition of emotion may not seem to say much. However, it differentiates an emotion from a mood, which is NOT a response to a situation, and an attitude, which is a predisposition to act in a certain way in a situation. It also differentiates an emotion from one’s affect, which are the outwardly expressive signs, especially facial expression and other nonverbal behaviors, that seem to be related to emotions.
Students may need a reminder that “arousal” means a wide range of energetic bodily responses, and not just sexual arousal. As we’ll review later, this arousal refers to activation of the sympathetic nervous system, including pounding heart, increased breathing, energy, sweating, etc.
3) Conscious experience:
(thoughts, especially the labeling of the emotion)
What a bad driver! I am angry, even scared; better calm down.
An emotion is a full body/mind/behavior response to a situation.

28. Some important reminders
This definition of emotion may not seem to say much.
However, it differentiates an emotion from a mood, which is NOT a response to a situation, and an attitude, which is a predisposition to act in a certain way in a situation.
It also differentiates an emotion from one’s affect, which are the outwardly expressive signs, especially facial expression and other nonverbal behaviors, that seem to be related to emotions.
Remember: “arousal” means a wide range of energetic bodily responses, and not just sexual arousal. (this arousal refers to activation of the sympathetic nervous system, including pounding heart, increased breathing, energy, sweating, etc.)

29. Theories of Emotion: The Arousal and Cognition “Chicken and Egg” Debates
Quick Overview:
James-Lange Theory:
body before thoughts
Cannon-Bard Theory:
body with thoughts
Singer-Schachter’s Two-factor theory:
body plus thoughts/label
Zajonc, LeDoux, Lazarus:
body/brain without conscious thoughts
Which came first, the chicken or the egg? Or did they evolve together?
Which came first?
1) the body changes that go with an emotion,
2) or the thoughts (conscious awareness and labeling of an emotion),
3) or do they happen together?
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30. James-Lange Theory: Body Before Thoughts
William James ( ): “We feel afraid because we tremble, sorry because we cry.”
The James-Lange theory states that emotion is our conscious awareness of our physiological responses to stimuli.
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The James–Lange theory is one of the earliest theories of emotion, developed independently by the William James ( ) from the United States and Carl Lange ( ) from Denmark.
This theory is mentioned for historical
purposes; we now know that although
biological changes are involved in
emotions, they are not the cause of
them.

31. Cannon-Bard Theory: Simultaneous Body Response and Cognitive Experience
The Cannon-Bard theory asserts that we have a conscious/cognitive experience of an emotion at the same time as our body is responding, not afterward.
They noted that we have the same physiological responses to different emotions
If Little Red Riding Hood’s heart races when she sees the Big Bad Wolf, how does she know if she is afraid, in love, embarrassed or merely joyful?
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Walter Cannon ( ) and Philip Bard ( ) developed their model of emotion in the first half of the 20th century.
Human body responses run parallel to the cognitive responses rather than causing them.

32. Schachter-Singer’s Two-factor Theory: Emotion = Body Plus a Cognitive Label
The Schachter-Singer “two-factor” theory suggests that emotions do not exist until we add a label to whatever body sensations we are feeling.
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Stanley Schachter ( ) and Jerome Singer (d. 2010) developed the “two-factor” theory of emotion in 1962.
I face a stranger, and my heart is pounding. Is it fear? Excitement? Anger? Lust? Or did I have too much caffeine? The label completes the emotion.

33. Robert Zajonc, Joseph LeDoux, and Richard Lazarus: Emotions without Awareness/Cognition
Theory: some emotional reactions, especially fears, likes, and dislikes, develop in a “low road” through the brain, skipping conscious thought.
In one study, people showed an amygdala response to certain images (above, left) without being aware of the image or their reaction.
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Richard Lazarus ( ) notes that some “top-down” cognitive functions such as threat-appraisal can be involved, but these emotional responses can still operate without conscious thought.
Joseph LeDoux (b. 1949) and Robert Zajonc ( ) proposed their ideas in the second half of the 20th century.

34. Summary: Theories of Emotion
Explanation of emotions Example
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35. Summary: Theories of Emotion
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36. Nonverbal Expressions of Emotion
Psychologists researching emotions find that no matter what culture you are from, you use and interpret facial expressions as representing the same emotions.
Sociobiology: relates social behaviors to evolutionary psychology

37. Is Experienced Emotion as Universal as Expressed Emotion?
Carroll Izzard suggested that there are ten basic emotions: those evident at birth (seen here) plus contempt, shame, and guilt.
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38. Embodied Emotion: The role of the autonomic nervous system
The physiological arousal felt during various emotions is orchestrated by the sympathetic nervous system, which triggers activity and changes in various organs.
Later, the parasympathetic division calms down the body.
Click to reveal bullets and example.

39. Stress Stress and emotions are intimately connected concepts
Studying stress not only helps us understand motivation and emotions but helps us solve problems caused by stress
The term stress can relate to life events (stressors) or our reactions to them (stress reactions).

40. Measuring Stress
Psychologists Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe designed one of the first instruments to measure stress called the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS).
It measured stress using life-change units (LCUs).
A major life change increases the score on the SRRS (changing jobs, getting married, moving)
A high-scoring person is more likely to have stress-related diseases than a low-scorer
Other psychologists have taken into account how people perceive these events as a more accurate measure of stress and these tests are even more highly correlated with stress-related disease.

41. Seyle’s General Adaptation Syndrome
General Adaptation Sydrome (GAS) describes the general response animals (including humans) have to stressful events.
Our response pattern to many physical and emotional response is consistent and Seyle described it in stages seen on the next slide.

42. Sympathetic
Nervous System
Gets body ready
To fight
Remains ready for
Action, hormones
Released to maint-
tain readiness.
Resources can be
Depleted here.
Parasympathetic
Nervous system
Restores balance
Stress-related diseases can include ulcers, heart conditions, and emotional difficulties.

43. Perceived Control Over Stressful Events
Various studies have shown that a perceived lack of control over events increases the harmful effects of the stress.
Rats given control over duration of painful shocks are less likely to get ulcers than the ones with no control, even if the number of shocks they received were the same
Some control lessons the effects
of the event overall.