1. Cognition Domain
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2. Memory
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3. Information Processing Model
Encoding – process of getting information into the memory system.
Storage – The retention encoded information over time.
Retrieval – The process of getting information out of memory storage.
In order to store information (Memory) we need to process the information. These are the parts of information processing.

4. Information Processing Model
PHOTOS: CHARLES T. BLAIR BROEKER

5. Module 22: Information Processing
Encoding
Module 22: Information Processing

6. Encoding: Automatic Processing and Effortful Processing
Module 22: Information Processing

7. Automatic Processing
The unconscious and effortless process of encoding certain information
such as space, time and frequency.

8. Effortful Processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
The best processing is through rehearsal or practice.

9. Automatic/Effortful Processing

10. Rehearsal The conscious repetition of information.
The more time spent on rehearsal, the more information one tends to remember.

11. Rehearsal and Retention

12. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
German philosopher who did pioneering memory studies.
Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”

13. Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

14. Overlearning Continuing to rehearse even after it has been memorized
Rehearsing past the point of mastery
Helps ensure information will be available even under stress

15. Encoding: Serial Position Effect
Module 22: Information Processing

16. Serial Position Effect
The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list more easily.
Primacy effect – the ability to recall information near the beginning of a list
Recency effect – the ability to recall information near the end of a list

17. Primacy/Recency Effect

18. Encoding: Spacing of Rehearsal
Module 22: Information Processing

19. Spacing Effect
The tendency for distributed practice to yield better retention than is achieved through massed practice
Distributed Practice
Spreading rehearsal out in several sessions separated by period of time
Usually enhances the recalling of the information
Massed Practice
Putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming)
Not as effective as distributed practice

20. Encoding: Encoding Meaning
Module 22: Information Processing

21. Encoding Meaning Semantic Encoding Acoustic Encoding Visual Encoding
Encoding of meaning.
Encoding information that is meaningful enhances recall
Acoustic Encoding
Encoding information based on the sounds of the information
Visual Encoding
Encoding information based on the images of the information

22. Visual Encoding

23. Self-Reference Effect
Enhanced semantic encoding of information that is personally relevant
Making information meaningful to a person by making it relevant to one’s life

24. Encoding: Encoding Imagery
Module 22: Information Processing

25. Encoding Imagery Visual images easily encode
Especially extremely positive or negative images
ROBERT CLAR/AURORA

26. Encoding: Mnemonic Devices
Module 22: Information Processing

27. Mnemonic Device A memory trick or technique.
“Every good boy does fine” to remember the notes on the lines of the scale
“I before E except after C” to remember spelling words

28. Examples of Mnemonic Devices
Method of Loci
Mnemonic device in which you associate items you want to remember with imaginary places
Peg Words
Mnemonic device in which you associate items you want to remember with a list of words you have already memorized
Goal is to visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs

29. Peg Word System

30. Encoding: Organizing Information
Module 22: Information Processing

31. Chunking Organizing information into meaningful units.
More information can be encoded if organized into meaningful chunks.

32. Chunking
Take ten seconds to memorize the above line of letters.

33. Chunking
Take ten seconds to memorize the above line of letters.

34. Chunking

35. Module 22: Information Processing
Storage
Module 22: Information Processing

36. Three Storage Systems Three distinct storage systems : Sensory Memory
Short-Term Memory (includes Working Memory)
Long-Term Memory

37. Sensory Memory
Brief, initial coding of sensory information in the memory system.
Iconic store – visual information
Echoic store – sound information
Information held just long enough to make a decision on its importance

38. Short-Term Memory
The part of your memory system that contains information you are consciously aware of before it is stored more permanently or forgotten.
Holds approximately seven, plus or minus two, chunks of information
Can retain the information as long as it is rehearsed
Also called “working memory”

39. Short-Term Memory

40. Long-Term Memory
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
Holds memories without conscious effort

41. Flashbulb Memory
A vivid, clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
Can be personal memories or centered around a shared event

42. Module 22: Information Processing
Retrieval
Module 22: Information Processing

43. Retrieval The process of getting information out of memory storage
Two forms of retrieval
Recall
The type of retrieval in which you must search for information that you previously stored
Ex. a fill-in-the-blank test
Recognition
The type of retrieval in which you must identify items you learned earlier
Ex. a multiple choice test

44. Retrieval

45. Module 22: Information Processing
Retrieval: Context
Module 22: Information Processing

46. Context Effect
The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information.

47. Context Effect

48. Retrieval: State Dependency
Module 22: Information Processing

49. State Dependent Memory
The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in the same physical and emotional state you were in when you encoded the information.
The retrieval state is congruent (the same as) with the encoding state

50. Forgetting and Memory Construction
Module 23
Forgetting and Memory Construction

51. Forgetting as Encoding Failure
Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

52. Information Processing Model REVIEW
Encoding – The process of getting information into the memory system.
Storage – The retention of encoded information in memory over time.
Retrieval – The process of getting encoded information out of memory storage.

53. Encoding Failures People fail to encode information because:
It is unimportant to them
It is not necessary to know the information
A decrease in the brain’s ability to encode

54. Which is the Right Penny? (From Nickerson & Adams, 1979)

55. Which is the Right Penny? (From Nickerson & Adams, 1979)

56. Forgetting as Storage Failure
Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

57. The Forgetting Curve (Adapted from Ebbinghaus, 1885)

58. Forgetting as Retrieval Failure: Interference
Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

59. Interference
A retrieval problem when one memory gets in the way of remembering another
Two types of interference:
Proactive interference
When an older memory disrupts the recall of a newer memory.
Retroactive interference
When a more recent memory disrupts the recall of an older memory.

60. Proactive Interference

61. Retroactive Interference

62. Forgetting as Retrieval Failure: Motivated Forgetting
Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

63. Repression In Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory,
the process of moving anxiety-producing memories to the unconscious.
A proposed way of protecting oneself from painful memories
NOT well-supported by research;
stressful incidents are actually more likely to be encoded

64. Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

65. Memory Jigsaw Analogy
Memories, rather than being like a video tape, are formed as bits and pieces.
People may retrieve only some of the pieces of the memory

66. Elizabeth Loftus ( )
Research established the constructed nature of memory.
Has found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions
Demonstrated the misinformation effect
Incorporating misleading information into a memory of an event.
Affects eyewitness testimony

67. Misinformation Effect

68. Memory Construction: Children’s Recall
Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

69. Children’s Testimony on Abuse
Research has shown children’s testimony to be unreliable
Children are very open to suggestions
As children mature their memories improve

70. Accurate Interviewing Methods
To promote accuracy with children’s testimony the interviewer should:
Phrase questions in a way the child can understand
Have no prior contact with the child
Use neutral language and do not lead or suggest answers

71. Memory Construction: Recovered Memories
Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

72. Accuracy of Memories

73. A physical and psychological experience.
Emotions
A physical and psychological experience.

74. Basics Emotions are necessary Basic Emotions Facial Expressions
Need them for survival
ex. Animals survival
Basic Emotions
Joy, fear, anger, surprise, disgust, & sadness
Do you agree?
Facial Expressions
Distinct expressions for each emotion
Expressions appear to be universal

75. Cognition & Emotion Cognition is thinking
Humans frontal lobe provides higher-order thinking skills (judgment, decisions, control, etc.)
Situational cues
Learn how to feel in specific situations
Fear is most likely when:
Outcome is uncertain
Person is certain that success is not possible

76. Biology of emotion Parts of the brain effecting emotion:
hypothalamus – center for pleasure & pain
Amygdala – aggression & fear
Reticular formation – activity level in the body
Glands & hormones
Pituitary – controls all glands
Adrenal – releases adrenaline in emergencies
Gonads – produce sex hormones
Plays a role in attraction

77. Three components of emotion
Physiological arousal
Heart rate, blood pressure, breathing
Expressive behaviors
flush cheeks, fidgeting, facial expression
Conscious experience
thoughts & feelings

78. Theories of Emotion
Don’t Be So Emotional

79. Emotion Theories James-Lange Theory Cannon-Bard Theory
(William James & Carl Lange)
Physiology → expressive behaviors → conscious experience
Cannon-Bard Theory
(Walter Cannon & Philip Bard)
Physiology + expressive behaviors = conscious experience
Two-factor Theory
(Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer)
Physical + cognitive label = conscious experience

80. EQ – The new IQ Emotional Quotient – EQ
Our ability to recognize the emotions we feel and similar emotions in other people
Empathy – ability to feel emotions of others
Some psychologists argue this is a type of intelligence
Some businesses actually test for EQ especially when the person will work with other people
SEL – Social Emotional Learning
Do we teach people how to handle their emotions? Support your answer.
Should we? Why or why not?

81. The End