1. Health psychology theories & models
Week 3
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2. Topics for this week Section 1 Review of weeks 1 & 2
Definition of Behaviourism / Behaviourist theory
Group feedback on research task – Pavlov’s Dogs; Little Albert; Skinner Box
Classical and Operant Conditioning
Albert Bandura and Social Learning theory
Section 2
Theory / Practice link – Health Belief Model
s. Davies 2016
S. Davies 2016

3. Review of weeks 1 & 2
Quiz – answer the questions, leaving room to amend, or add to, your answers during class feedback.
s. Davies 2016
S. Davies 2016

4. behaviourism According to this theory:
There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals.
People have no free will – a person’s environment determines their behaviour.
When born our mind is 'tabula rasa' (a blank slate).
All behaviour, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus – response association.
S. Davies 2016

5. Behaviourism
Behaviourism suggests that all behaviour can be explained by environmental causes rather than by internal forces like thinking and emotion.
Behaviourism is focused on observable behaviour which can be scientifically measured.
Associated with the work of Ivan Pavlov, John Watson and Frederic Skinner.
The behavioural school of psychology had a significant influence on the course of psychology, and many of the ideas and techniques that emerged from this school of thought are still widely used today.
S. Davies 2016

6. Classical & operant conditioning
Over to You!
Group 1 – Pavlov’s Dogs experiment and your explanation of Classical Conditioning
Group 2 – Little Albert experiment and your explanation of Classical Conditioning
Group 3 – Skinner Box experiment and your explanation of Operant Conditioning
You have 10 minutes to review your individual notes and write some group feedback.
s. Davies 2016
S. Davies 2016

7. classical CONDITIONING – KEY POINTS
Classical conditioning theory involves learning a new behaviour by a process of association.
In simple terms two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. 
Classical conditioning involves learning to associate an unconditioned stimulus that already brings about a particular response (i.e. a reflex action) with a new (conditioned) stimulus, so that the new stimulus brings about the same response.
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8. Pavlov’s dogs and classical conditioning
s. Davies – online image
S. Davies 2016

9. Operant conditioning – key points
Changing of behaviour by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response.
Behaviour which is reinforced tends to be repeated.
Positive reinforcement strengthens a behaviour by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding.
Negative reinforcement - the removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behaviour
Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a behaviour rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behaviour that it follows.
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10. Skinner & operant conditioning
s. Davies online image
S. Davies 2016

11. Critical evaluation
Can you think of any drawbacks with the behavioural theories of classical and operant conditioning?
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S. Davies 2016

12. Critical evaluation
Classical and Operant conditioning emphasize the importance of learning from the environment, and support nurture over nature, this is deterministic, it does not allow for ‘free will’ and underestimates the complexity of human behaviour. 
Classical & Operant conditioning fail to take into account the role of inherited and cognitive factors in learning, and therefore provide an incomplete explanation of the learning process in humans and animals.
Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) suggests that humans can learn through observation as well as through personal experience.
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13. Despite their theoretical limitations techniques based on classical & operant conditioning are widely used in health psychology
How do you think techniques based on classical and operant conditioning may be used to modify and / or change health behaviour?
Working in your groups research and identify some applications of the theories in relation to health behaviour ?
Choose a member of the group to feedback to the class – you have 10 minutes for this task.
s. Davies 2016
S. Davies 2016

14. Social learning theory
In social learning theory Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviourist learning theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
However, he adds two important ideas:
Mediating (intervening) processes occur between stimuli & responses.
Behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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15. Social learning theory (SLT)
SLT is often described as the ‘bridge’ between behaviourism and the cognitive approach. This is because it focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in learning.
Unlike Skinner, Bandura (1977) believes that humans are active information processors and think about the relationship between their behaviour and its consequences, individuals do not automatically observe behaviour and then imitate it.
According to Bandura (1977) these cognitive or thinking factors mediate (i.e. intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a new response is developed.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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16. Difference between behaviourism & social learning theory
Stimulus – from environment
Mental Process – cannot be studied, mind is a ‘black box’.
Response - behaviour
Input – in the environment
Mental process – mediation – cognitive/ thinking event
Output - behaviour
Adapted from:
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17. Social learning theory
Bandura argued that:
People – especially children learn by observing the behaviour of others (models), e.g. parents, siblings, friends, characters on T.V, teachers at school, etc.
Models provide examples of behaviour to observe and imitate, e.g. masculine and feminine, pro and anti-social etc.
Children pay attention to some of these models and remember their behaviour.  At a later time they may imitate (i.e. copy) the behaviour they have observed..
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18. Observation & Consequences Other Influencing Factors
Identification with the model is an influencing factor.
Motivation to identify with a particular model is that they have a quality which the individual would like to possess.
Self –efficacy, the belief that a future action is within one’s capabilities.
s. Davies 2016 – online image;
S. Davies 2016

19. Take a break – theory to practice next !
s. Davies 2016
S. Davies 2016

20. Section 2
Theory to practice
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21. Health belief model Attitude Behaviour change Information change
Early theories about why human beings change our health behaviour were based on the following theory:
Information
Attitude
change
Behaviour change
Morrison, v. and bennett, p. ‘an introduction to health psychology’, essex: pearson education
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22. Health belief model
This was proved to be a naïve perspective as simply providing information about the benefits of stopping smoking or eating a healthy diet may, or may not, change attitudes and behaviour.
A variety of other models have been proposed as explanations for health behaviour and behaviour change.
One of the first and best well known is the Health Belief Model.
Adapted from: Morrison, v. and bennett, p. ‘an introduction to health psychology’, essex: pearson education
S. Davies 2016

23. Health belief model
The Health Belief Model (HBM) is based on concepts from both Behaviourism and Social Learning Theory – now often referred to as Social Cognitive Theory (SCT).
The HBM attempts to explain and predict health behaviours by focusing on the attitudes and beliefs of individuals.
The HBM is best illustrated through examples – please answer the questionnaire.
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24. Health belief model – major concepts
HBM is based on six key concepts:
Perceived Susceptibility – likelihood of getting a condition
Perceived Severity – severity and consequences of a condition
Perceived Benefits – expected positive effects of taking action
Perceived Barriers – practical and psychological costs of action
Cues to action – events/knowledge that triggers action
Self Efficacy – confidence in own ability to take action
S. Davies 2016

25. Health belief model
From an evaluation of the basis of HBM, its key concepts and, your questionnaire, can you think of any potential limitations of this model?
Adapted from: Morrison, v. and bennett, p. ‘an introduction to health psychology’, essex: pearson education
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26. Critical evaluation
Do people value and pursue health in the same way as the model suggests?
Do the key concepts all carry equal weight in predicting health related behaviour change, or, is this likely to vary?
Do the key concepts all occur at the same time, i.e. as a ‘one off’ assessment? Is this realistic?
Does the HBM take into account social influences on health?
Do people always make rational decisions?

27. Critical evaluation
Janz and Becker (1984) carried out a study using the HBM and found the best predictors of health behaviour to be perceived barriers and perceived susceptibility to illness.
Is health behaviour that rational? (Is tooth-brushing really determined by weighing up the pros and cons?).
Its emphasis on the individual (HBM ignores social and economic factors)
The absence of a role for emotional factors such as fear and denial.

28. Critical evaluation
Leventhal et al. (1985) have argued that health-related behaviour is related more to the way in which people interpret their symptoms (e.g. if you feel unwell and you feel it is not going to cure itself then you would probably do something about it).
Schwarzer (1992) has further criticized the HBM for saying nothing about how attitudes might change.