1. ENGLISH DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF LETTERS
S Y N T A X
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF LETTERS
Sentences?

2. Linguistics Levels

3. References:
Jong-Bok Kim and Peter Sells, English Syntax: An Introduction, November 20, 2007
Radford, Andrew, English Syntax: An Introduction, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001
Fromkin, Victoria, An Introduction to Language, ninth edition, US: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. 2009

4. SYNTAX
the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences
"Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages

5. (3) The arrangement of words in a sentence. Adjective: syntactic.
A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed of one or more clauses .
Etymology:
From the Greek, "arrange together"

7. Noam Chomsky It’s part of Linguistics
It’s part of the grammar of every language
And the grammar of a language is part of a native speaker’s linguistic knowledge

8. UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR Theory of Chomsky
UG has Principles, true of all languages
All languages have the same underlying structure
e.g. all languages have nouns and verbs
and Parameters, whose setting varies from language to language
English and Chinese SVO; Japanese SOV

9. Phrase structure rules
Some words seem to belong together:
{The crazy man} {is jumping off the bridge}
Groups of words that belong together are called constituents
The component that determines the properties of the constituent is the head, and the constituent can be referred to as a phrase: e.g. noun phrase

10. NP If we look at phrases, some patterns emerge: Det N
the instructor = NP
Det N
a friend = NP
some homework = NP
two classes = NP

11. VP VP VP VP V V NP V NP PP Adv sang ate Det N sang Det N P NP badly
the cake a song in Det N
the shower

12. Hierarchy
Another way to look at “hierarchies”: construction and constituents
The young must respect the old people.
(A) the young (B) must respect the old people
(C) the (D) young (E) must respect (F) the old people
(G) must (H) respect (I) the (J) old people
(K) old (L) people

13. Clauses Clause Types: S+V (The dog + is running)
S+V+O (The dog + bites + him)
S+V+C (The car + is + ready)
S+V+A (The picture + lays +on the ground)
S+V+O+O (I + give + him + a pen)
S+V+O+C (He + calls + John a fool)
S+V+O+A (Mary + saw + John +yesterday)
Note: subject (S), verb (V), complement (C), object (O), adverbial (A).

14. 1.Tree Diagrams (1) “The girl chased the dog.” (Crystal 96)
Identify the 2 major constituents (The girl + chased the dog)
Divide the next-biggest constituent into 2: chased + the dog
Continue dividing constituents into 2 units until we can go no further.
e.g. the + girl, the + dog, chase + -ed

15. 1.Tree Diagrams (2) Tree Diagrams: Different levels in analysis
The tree diagram format may be viewed as:
A static representation of the structure of the sentence at the bottom of the diagram.
A dynamic format, representing a way of “generating” a very large number of sentences with similar structures (by the use of phrase structure rules).

16. Phrase Structure S NP VP ART N V NP (DET) ART N
the girl chased the dog

17. Phrase Structure Rules
Phrase structure rules (Nash 75-77): present the information of the tree diagram in an alternative format
S NP + VP
VP V + (NP) + (PP) + (ADV)
(ART) + (ADJ)* N
NP PRO
PP P + NP
Note: see Yule 105 for symbols and abbreviation definition.

18. Example The children put the toy in the box S NP VP Det N V NP PP Det18

19. Example 19

20. Deep and Surface Structure
The deep structure is an abstract level of structural organization in which all the elements determining structural interpretation are represented.
Sentences that have alternative interpretations
Sentences that have different surface forms but have the same underlying meaning.
Surface structure= how the sentence is actually represented

21. Deep structure and surface structure refer
respectively to the abstract structure and to the actually produced structure. (wardaugh, 118)
VP  be + adj
Vi + Adv
Recursion: a set that permits an infinite expansion

22. Deep and surface structure
How superficially different sentences are closely related?
Charlie broke the window.
The window was broken by Charlie
Charlie who broke the window.
Was the window broken by Charlie?
Difference in their surface structure = difference in syntactic forms
BUT they have the same ‘deep’ or underlying structure

23. Structural Ambiguity
How superficially similar sentences are different? (multiple meanings)
E.g. Annie whacked the man with an umbrella
Same surface structure but different deep structure
The boy saw the man with a telescope
The question is: What is the scope of "with the telescope"? Does it modify only "the man" or does it modify "saw the man"?

24. Structural Ambiguity (1) The boy saw the man with the telescopeNP VP
Det NP N V
Det N PP P NP
Det N
The
boy
saw
the
man
with
the
telescope 24
Meaning: The boy saw the man. The man had a telescope.

25. Structural Ambiguity (2) The boy saw the man with the telescopeNP VP
Det N V NP PP
Det N P NP
Det N
The
boy
saw
the
man
with
the
telescope
Meaning: Using the telescope, the boy saw the man 25

26. Recursion Rules can be applied more than once in generating sentences
E.g. repeat prepositional phrase more than once
The gun was on the table near the window in the bedroom in the pink house
Put sentences inside sentences
This is the cat that ate the rat that ate the cheese that was sold by the man that lived in the city that was on the river…
No end to recursion- produce longer complex sentences 26

27. Recursion
Some phrasal categories may appear to the left or right of the arrow
NP  (Det) N (PP)
PP  P (NP)
Recursion: the property of language that allows for the embedding of categories (which can yield infinitely long phrases)

28. the cat on the mat in the house on the streetNP
Det N PP
the cat P NP
on Det N PP
the mat P NP
in Det N PP
the house P NP
on Det N
the street

29. Back to recursion [Mary helped George]. (A sentence)
[Cathy knew] that [Mary helped George].
(a sentence within a sentence)
[John believed] that [Cathy knew] that [Mary helped George].
The word that introduces the complement phrase 29

30. 3. Recursiveness (Recursion)
Recursive rule: VP VS (Yule 107)
e.g.: John said [ Cathy thought (Mary helped George)].
Another e.g. of recursiveness
The Rose in My Garden
This is the rose in my garden.
This is the bee that sleeps on the rose in my garden.
These are the holly hocks high above ground, that give shade to the bee that sleeps on the rose in my garden.

31. Complement Phrases Cathy knew that Mary helped George
That = complementizer (C) introducing complement phrase (CP)
The CP comes after the VP
S NP VP
VP V CP
CP C S 31

32. Complement Phrases 32

33. Transformational-generative grammar
Transformations: processes that change the deep structure into surface structure.
Generative: using phrase structure rules, se can produce (generate) infinite sentences.
Surface Structure: S
NP VP
V NP
eat ART N
the chou tofu

34. TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR MODEL OF LANGUAGE
Phrase structure Lexical component Deep structure Transformations Surface structure Morphophonemic rules Sentence

35. Deep and Surface Structure
Deep and surface structure: “the form of a sentence we produce and understand is very often not the same as the basic form which shows its meaning” (Nash 79)
A. Deep Structure: the abstract, underlying level, but
basic form of the sentence
B. Surface Structure: the superficial, syntactic form that we produce in reality
e.g. old men and women
e.g. Annie whacked a man with an umbrella. (Yule 103)
same surface structure form, two underlying interpretations (deep structures)
Other examples:
1. Help yourself. 2. The runner broke the world record.

36. Deep Structure:
S imperative
NP VP transformation
pro V NP
ART N
you eat the chou tofu

37. Surface structure: Help yourself! Deep Structure: S S
NP VP reflexive NP VP
pro V NP transformation pro V NP
pro (reflexive pro)
you help you you help yourself

38. S
NP VP imperative
Pro V NP transformation
(reflexive pro) Help yourself
You help yourself

39. Transformational Rules
Phrase structure rules represent ‘deep’ structure- always generate structures with fixed word order.
Mary saw George recently
Recently Mary saw George
Transformational rules= take a specific part and attach it in another place
You will help Cathy
Will you help Cathy? 39

40. Transformational Rules40

41. PARAPHRASE & AMBIGUITY
When several surface structures relate to one deep structure.
John bought the book from Mary.
Mary sold the book to John.
The book was sold to John by Mary.
Ambiguity
One surface structure relating to several deep structures.
Flying planes can be dangerous.
To fly planes.
Planes which are flying.

42. Language Ambiguity 1. Sentence Ambiguity:
e.g.: Visiting relatives can be a nuisance.
2. Word Ambiguity:
e.g.: The man put his straw on the floor.

43. Exercises
Draw a labeled tree diagram for the following English phrases. (Hint: what part of speech is the leader for the phrase?)
a.  ancient pyramids
b.  in the early evening
c.  Drove a car 43

44. Exercises Draw phrase structure trees for the following sentences:
The puppy found the child
The ice melted
The hot sun melted the ice.
The house on the hill collapsed in the wind.
The boat sailed up the river.
A girl laughed at the monkey. 44

45. Domination – phrases can dominate words in a sentence tree
Domination – phrases can dominate words in a sentence tree. But how do we know which phrases dominate what? A tree has a hierarchical structure, which means that a node or label dominates all that is below it.

47. We can see here that phrase A dominates phrase B and ‘in’
We can see here that phrase A dominates phrase B and ‘in’. We know this because phrase A is above phrase B and it is above the word ‘in’. When a phrase is directly above something, we call this immediate domination. Phrase A immediately dominates phrase B and ‘in’, but it does not immediately dominate ‘the’ or ‘car’.

48. The Grammatical Roles in Word Order
functions to distinguish the grammatical and semantic roles of sentence constituents.
Grammatical roles include subject, verb, object, complement, & adverbial.
Semantic roles include agent, action, goal, beneficiary, instrument, location, and more.

49. The Grammatical Roles in Word Order
Word order helps us understand the grammatical function of each constituent.
Subjects in English for example are usually at the beginning of the clause.
John left yesterday after he gave his lecture.
Objects in English occur after the verb.
“Close the door,” she yelled, kicking it shut.

50. The Semantic Roles in Word Order
Constituents also serve semantic roles in sentences, such as agent, action, goal, instrument, location and many more.
John opened the door with a key. agent action goal instrument
subject verb object adverbial In most cases, grammatical & semantic roles overlap, but not always.

51. Function Words & Syntax
Function words are minor word classes.
In English, those are prepositions, pronouns, articles, and conjunctions.
These function words provide valuable grammatical information: how easily can you read the following text for example?

52. Examples of Function Words
Was walking front door, dropping bags going.
It was me -- walking out of my front door, dropping my bags and going back in. (O. J.)
Function words provide important information about the grammatical & semantic roles played by the constituents in a sentence.

53. Major word classes
English uses grammatical inflections to provide different kinds of grammatical information on the major word classes -- nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

54. Grammatical Inflections in Nouns
English uses the grammatical morphemes to mark case
This is John’s book,
number
He owns several rare books,
and gender
Adrienne Rich hates being called a poetess.

55. Grammatical Inflections in Verbs
English uses grammatical morphemes to mark
tense Liz walked with her sister.
aspect Liz has helped her often.
voice Liz was pleased by her cleverness.
modality Liz must be smarter than Dad.

56. Grammatical Inflections in Adjectives & Adverbs
English uses grammatical morphemes on adjectives and adverbs to mark
grammatical function
Ingenious Liz can do this easily.
comparison (degree)
Liz is smarter than her father. She learns faster than he does.

57. CONSTITUENT and CONSTRUCTION
A constituent is any word or construction that enters into some larger construction.
An immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.In the complex noun phrase (CONSTRUCTION) the dog that killed the cat, each of the following items are immediate constituents:
the
dog
that killed the cat

58. An ultimate constituent is one of the grammatically irreducible units that constitutes a construction. In the construction the dog that killed the cat, the following are ultimate constituents:
the
dog
that
kill
-ed
cat
A construction is an ordered arrangement of grammatical units forming a larger unit.

59. immediate constituent analysis, also called Ic Analysis,  in linguistics, a system of grammatical analysis that divides sentences into successive layers, or constituents, until, in the final layer, each constituent consists of only a word or meaningful part of a word.

60. In the sentence “The old man ran away,” the first division into immediate constituents would be between “the old man” and “ran away.” The immediate constituents of “the old man” are “the” and “old man.” At the next level “old man” is divided into “old” and “man.” The term was introduced by the United States linguist Leonard Bloomfield in 1933,

61. The sentence You eat bananas contains the following constituents:
Immediate constituents
you
eat bananas
Ultimate constituents
eat
banana -s

62. CONSTRUCTION TYPES MODIFICATION H (Head) – M (Modifier)
- old ( M) – man (H)
- runs slowly
- stood at the back
- slowly, he stood up
- he left because he was left

63. 2. PREDICATION
a structure of predication contains Subject (Sb) and predicate (P)
- John sang
- The old man cultivated the garden
- The man who came left early

64. 3. Complementation
A structure of complementation contains a verbal (V) and a complement (C).
- Peter kissed Mary
- John is clever
- John is a student
- I want to go

65. 4. Subordination
A structure of coordication contains a subordinator (Sub) – prep, particle, subordinating conj (in, over, to, after, because, etc) and a dependent unit (D)
- Mary stood at the back
- I want to go
- She cried when she fell down

66. 5. Coordination
it contains a marker or coordinator (Co) and two or more independent units (I) – words, phrases, or clauses.
- Jokowi and Prabowo
- Peter, Paul and Mary
- Jack sings and Peter dances

67. Show the hierarchies of constructions of the following sentence:
Peter and Susan bought an old house last year. S
Sb P
etc

68. Deep and Surface Structure
The term deep structure and surface structure refers to Abstract structure and to the actually produced structure.
Example: The old house fell down S
The house fell down
The house was old

69. Deep Structure [the house [the house was old] fell down]
relative transformation
[the house [which was old] fell down]
relative pronoun – deletion
[the house [was old] fell down]
be – deletion
[the house [old] fell down]
adj movement
Surface Structure [The old house fell down]