1. Dictionaries, Linguistic Attitudes, and Usage
What does “The Dictionary” say?
Who establishes “correct usage”?

2. Standard Usage Described on a Latin model.
Jonathan Swift (1710), Tatler essay on the state of English.
Samuel Johnson (1755), Dictionary
Robert Lowth, Bishop of London, A short introduction to English grammar (1762).
Fowlers Modern Usage and The King’s English in the 20th century.

3. History of Dictionaries
First comprehensive dictionary in English: Samuel Johnson 1755.
Based on “authorities”-- The Great Authors (Shakespeare, Milton, etc.)
Noah Webster 1828, An American Dictionary of the English Language
The Oxford English Dictionary, begun 1857

4. The Oxford English Dictionary
Begun in 1857 as the New English Dictionary
Finished in 1928
Undergoing first full revision since its inception
Based on historical principles
Descriptive in Nature

5. The American Dictionary Wars
Webster’s Third in 1961 rejected prescriptivism entirely, much to the displeasure of the American public and language “mavens”
American Heritage stepped into the breach and tried to provide a “guide” to educated “middle-class usage”

6. Arbiters of Correctness
OED relies on textual evidence as its authority
American Heritage relies on a “Usage Panel” consisting of artists, academics, and public leaders: expert language users

7. Treatment of History
OED third edition has abandoned Indo-European reconstructions
American Heritage dictionary, because of close ties with Harvard University, includes an appendix of Indo-European roots, the only one available in English

8. Nature of Prescriptivism
Posits a Standard Dialect invested with prestige and (frequently) “moral character”
Good prescriptivists recognize the arbitrary, sociologically based nature of their judgments
Bad prescriptivists insist on absolutes and use prescriptivism to preserve social control

9. Language Variation
Domain of sociolinguists; formally of dialectologists.
Revived in the 1970s by Labov and the Milroys.
Labov studied individual variation (register and style shifts).
Milroys studied network variations (register and style shifts among groups).

10. What are the Standard Dialects?
OED uses Received Pronunciation, effectively educated Southern England, London usage: Oxbridge Usage.
American Heritage uses dialect of Inland North, broadcasting standard as its standard, although it is still submitted to Usage Panel.

11. How Do We Manage Prescriptivism?
Recognize it when it happens
Recognize its uses
Prescriptivists should create access for speakers of non-standard dialects, not restrict it
Always ask, “Who is setting the standard here?”