1. Psychology 2e
Chapter 11
Motivation and Emotion

2. Module 27 Motivation

3. Learning Objectives
27.1 Understand biologically based theories of motivation Learn about cognitively based theories of motivation Discuss humanistic theories of motivation Understand eating behavior and the influence of culture Learn about sexual behavior and orientation Understand achievement motivation Describe other ways in which humans and nonhuman animals are motivated.

4. Motivation
Learning Objective 27.1: Understand biologically based theories of motivation.
Motivation: the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met
Types of motivation:
Intrinsic motivation: a person performs an action because the act is fun, challenging, or satisfying in an internal manner
Extrinsic motivation: a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person
Decreases the degree of creativity when compared to intrinsic motivation

5. Biologically Based Theories
Learning Objective 27.1: Understand biologically based theories of motivation.
Instincts and the evolutionary approach
Drive-reduction theory 5

6. Instincts and the Evolutionary Approach
Learning Objective 27.1: Understand biologically based theories of motivation.
Instincts: the biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals
Animals are governed by their instincts to migrate, build a nest, mate, and protect their territory
William McDougall’s 18 instincts for humans include curiosity, flight, pugnacity, and acquisition
Responsible for sexual behavior and aggressive behavior related to territorial protection
The approach describes human behavior, but does not explain it

7. Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation (1 of 3)
Learning Objective 27.1: Understand biologically based theories of motivation.
Need: a requirement for some material (such as food or water) that is essential for survival of the organism
Drive: a psychological tension and physical arousal
Arises when there is a need that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need
Reduces the tension

8. Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation (2 of 3)
Learning Objective 27.1: Understand biologically based theories of motivation.
Drive-reduction theory: assumes that behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal
Does not explain all human motivation
Two kinds of drives:
Primary drives
Acquired (secondary) drives

9. Homeostasis stimulated
Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation (3 of 3)
Learning Objective 27.1: Understand biologically based theories of motivation.
Primary drives: involve needs of the body such as hunger and thirst
Primary reinforcers satisfy primary drives
Acquired (secondary) drives: learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval
Secondary reinforcers satisfy acquired drives
Homeostasis: the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state
Primary need
State of imbalance
Homeostasis stimulated 9

10. Figure 27.1: Homeostasis
The diagram above shows how increased hunger (a state of imbalance) prompts a person to eat.
Eating increases the level of glucose (blood sugar), causing the feelings of hunger to decrease.
After a period without eating, the glucose levels become low enough to stimulate the hunger drive once again, and the entire cycle is repeated.

11. Cognitively Based Theories
Learning Objective 27.2: Learn about cognitively based theories of motivation.
McClelland’s theory
Arousal approach
Incentive approach

12. McClelland’s Theory (1 of 3)
Learning Objective 27.2: Learn about cognitively based theories of motivation.
Emphasis on three psychological needs:
Affiliation
Power
Achievement
Need for affiliation (n Aff): the need for friendly social interactions and relationships with others
People in this need seek to be liked by others and to be held in high regard by others
Makes them good team players

13. McClelland’s Theory (2 of 3)
Learning Objective 27.2: Learn about cognitively based theories of motivation.
Need for power (n Pow): the need to have control or influence over others
People high in this need want their ideas to be the ones that are used, regardless of its success
Status and prestige are important
Monetary achievement is valued

14. McClelland’s Theory (3 of 3)
Learning Objective 27.2: Learn about cognitively based theories of motivation.
Need for achievement (n Ach): the need that involves a strong desire to succeed in attaining goals, realistic and challenging ones
People high in this need
Look for careers and hobbies that allow others to evaluate them
Have the need to receive feedback about their performance in addition to the achievement of reaching the goal
Achieve success in ways that do not always lead to material riches
Strongly related to success in school, occupational success, and the quality and amount of what a person produces 14

15. Arousal Approach to Motivation (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 27.2: Learn about cognitively based theories of motivation.
Stimulus motive: a motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity
Arousal theory: theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation
The average person might require a moderate level of arousal to feel content, some people need less arousal and some need more

16. Arousal Approach to Motivation (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 27.2: Learn about cognitively based theories of motivation.
Yerkes–Dodson law: a law stating that performance is related to arousal
Moderate levels of arousal lead to better performance than do levels of arousal that are too low or too high
Varies with the difficulty of the task:
Easy tasks require a high-moderate level
More difficult tasks require a low-moderate level
Sensation seeker: someone who needs more arousal than the average person
They need more complex and varied sensory experiences than do other people

17. Figure 27.2: Arousal and Performance
The optimal level of arousal for task performance depends on the difficulty of the task
Easy tasks at a high-moderate level of arousal (green)
Difficult tasks at a low-moderate level (red)

18. Incentive Approaches to Motivation
Learning Objective 27.2: Learn about cognitively based theories of motivation.
Incentives: things that attract or lure people into action; stimulate learned behavior
Incentive approaches: theories of motivation in which behavior is explained as a response to the external stimulus and its rewarding properties
Rewarding properties exist independently of any need or level of arousal
Can cause people to act only upon the incentive

19. Humanistic Theories Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Learning Objective 27.3: Discuss humanistic theories of motivation.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Self-determination theory (SDT) 19

20. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 27.3: Discuss humanistic theories of motivation.
Maslow originally proposed eight levels of needs in the following hierarchical order: Physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, cognitive, aesthetic, self-actualization, and transcendence
To advance from one level to another, the base needs should be met first
Self-actualization: the point that is seldom reached at which people have sufficiently satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human potential

21. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 27.3: Discuss humanistic theories of motivation.
Peak experiences: times in a person’s life during which self-actualization is temporarily achieved
The process of growth and self-actualization results from repetitive peak experiences
Criticism
Little scientific support: theory based on his own observations of people
Evidence that the lower needs do not have to be satisfied before moving on to a higher need
Ignored cross-cultural studies

22. Figure 27.3: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

23. Self-Determination Theory
Learning Objective 27.3: Discuss humanistic theories of motivation.
Proposed by Richard Ryan and Edward Deci
Self-determination theory (SDT): suggests that the social context of an action has an effect on the type of motivation existing for the action
Three inborn and universal needs:
Autonomy: the need to be in control of one’s own behavior and goals
Competence: the need to be able to master the challenging tasks of one’s life
Relatedness: the need to feel a sense of belonging in relationship with others

24. Hunger: Social Causes (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 27.4: Understand eating behavior and the influence of culture.
The physical hunger drive involves several factors: hunger, insulin, and glucagon
Hunger: if the stomach is empty and contracted
Insulin and glucagon: hormones secreted by the pancreas to control the levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the body by lowering or raising the level of glucose in the bloodstream
Insulin is released after eating has begun and causes a feeling of more hunger because of a drop in blood sugar levels

25. Hunger: Social Causes (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 27.4: Understand eating behavior and the influence of culture.
Leptin: signals hypothalamus about insulin’s release in the bloodstream and that the body has had enough food, reducing appetite
People often eat because the food looks or smells good even when they are not hungry
Classical conditioning may cause insulin levels to increase, stimulating hunger even before food is eaten
Cultural factors and gender also play a part in determining hunger and eating habits

26. Obesity (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 27.4: Understand eating behavior and the influence of culture.
Obesity: the body weight of a person is 20 percent or more over the ideal body weight for that person’s height
Biological causes include
Heredity: people with a family history of obesity run a high risk of inheriting it
Hormones: problems with leptin production or detection can stimulate overeating
Slowing metabolism with age
Other causes include overeating

27. Obesity (2 of 2) Obesity Statistics:
Learning Objective 27.4: Understand eating behavior and the influence of culture.
Obesity Statistics:
Developing countries with stronger economies and stable food supplies show high rates of obesity
Increase in food variety leads to an increase in eating beyond the physiological need to eat
United States has the highest rate of obesity in the world
Over the last 20 years, rates of obesity in developing countries have tripled

28. Figure 27.4: Obese Laboratory Rat
The rat on the left has reached a high level of obesity because its ventromedial hypothalamus has been deliberately damaged in the laboratory.
The result is a rat that no longer receives signals of being satiated, and so overeats.

29. Sexual Behavior
Learning Objective 27.5: Learn about sexual behavior and orientation.
The Kinsey Study (1948): massive survey of sexual behavior
Controversial findings; sexual orientation was not an either/or situation but instead fell on a continuum
Criticisms:
The sample size composed exclusively white, middle class, and college educated
Study paid more attention to sexual behavior that was considered unusual than “normal”
Error-prone, falsified reports
Face-to-face interview increased likelihood of inaccurate data

30. Sexual Orientation
Learning Objective 27.5: Learn about sexual behavior and orientation.
Sexual orientation: a person’s sexual attraction and affection for members of either the opposite or the same sex
Heterosexuality: attraction to the opposite sex; socially acceptable in all cultures
Homosexuality: attraction to the same sex
Bisexuality: attraction to both sexes

31. Personality and nAch (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 27.6: Understand achievement motivation.
Carol Dweck’s Self-Theory of Motivation
The need for achievement closely linked to personality factors – a person’s view of how self can affect the individual’s perception of success or failure
People with internal locus of control:
Assume that they have control over what happens in their lives
Believe that intelligence is changeable and can be shaped by experiences and efforts
Work at developing new strategies and get involved in new tasks with the goal of increasing their “smarts”
Motivated; don’t allow failure to destroy their confidence

32. Personality and nAch (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 27.6: Understand achievement motivation.
Carol Dweck’s Self-Theory of Motivation (continued):
People with external locus of control:
Assume that their lives are controlled by powerful others, luck, or fate
Believe that intelligence is fixed and unchangeable
Give up easily or avoid situations in which they might fail
Develop learned helplessness
Try to “look smart” and outperform others 32

33. The Motivation to Love (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 27.7: Describe other ways in which humans and nonhuman animals are motivated.
Types of love
Romantic love:
The initial attraction to another person
Lead to sexual reproduction
Involve bonds between infants and their caretakers
Passionate love: physical passion experienced at the beginning of a romantic relationship
Companionate love: deep intimacy, affection, and trust enjoyed by longtime partners

34. The Motivation to Love (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 27.7: Describe other ways in which humans and nonhuman animals are motivated.
Factors affecting expression of romantic love:
Hormonal factors: oxytocin and endorphins enhance the expressions of romantic affection
Environmental factors:
Attachment style through infancy and growth years: people with secure family relationships as children tend to form secure romantic relationship as adults
Proximity and similarity: people get close to people with similar beliefs and attitudes
Broader social and cultural factors

35. The Motivation to Belong
Learning Objective 27.7: Describe other ways in which humans and nonhuman animals are motivated.
People feel a strong need for friendships and a sense of belonging within a group
Feeling connected and accepted makes a person happy, whereas isolation makes anxious and depressed
Being ostracized causes increased activity in a region of the brain active during physical pain
Encourages
Positive behavior: cooperation, helping others
Staying put in destructive and abusive relationships

36. Module 28 Emotion

37. Learning Objectives
28.1 Identify the biological and cognitive components of emotion Explain how culture, environment, and gender influence emotional expression, interpretation, and behavior Describe research and theories of emotional experience. 37

38. The Physiology of Emotion (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 28.1: Identify the biological and cognitive components of emotion.
Emotion: the “feeling” aspect of consciousness, characterized by a certain physical arousal, a certain behavior that reveals the emotion to the outside world, and an inner awareness of feelings
Emotions work differently depending on which side of the brain is involved
Emotion
Arousal created by sympathetic nervous system
Increase in heart rate, rapid breathing, dilation of pupils, dry mouth 38

39. The Physiology of Emotion (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 28.1: Identify the biological and cognitive components of emotion.
Role of amygdala:
Associated with emotions of humans and animals
Involved in determination of facial expressions of human emotions
Right hemisphere more active than left in determining facial expressions 39

40. The Behavior of Emotion
Learning Objective 28.2: Explain how culture, environment, and gender influence emotional expression, interpretation, and behavior.
Charles Darwin theorized that emotions are a product of evolution, and therefore, universal
Emotional expressions have their basis in biology rather than in learning
Seven consistently recognized facial expressions through most cultures: anger, fear, disgust, happiness, surprise, sadness, and contempt
Display rules: learned ways of controlling displays of emotion in social settings; vary from culture to culture 40

41. Figure 28.1 Facial Expressions of Emotion
Facial expressions appear to be universal. For example, these faces are interpreted as showing (a) anger, (b) fear, (c) disgust, (d) happiness, (e) surprise, and (f) sadness by people of cultures all over the world. Although the situations that cause these emotions may differ from culture to culture, the expression of particular emotions remains strikingly the same.

42. Subjective Experience
Learning Objective 28.2: Explain how culture, environment, and gender influence emotional expression, interpretation, and behavior.
Labeling emotion:
A matter of retrieving memories of previous similar experiences, perceiving the context of the emotion, and coming up with a solution – a label
Interpreting the subjective feeling by giving it a label
Another way of labeling emotions is “cognitive element”
Influenced by language and culture 42

43. Theories of Emotional Experience
Learning Objective 28.3: Describe research and theories of emotional experience.
Five prevalent theories:
Common-sense theory of emotion
James–Lange theory of emotion
Cannon–Bard theory of emotion
Schachter–Singer and cognitive arousal theory of emotion
Lazarus and the cognitive-mediational theory of emotion 43

44. Common-Sense Theory of Emotion
Learning Objective 28.3: Describe research and theories of emotional experience.
Assumed that feeling a particular emotion led first to a physical reaction and then to a behavioral one

45. Figure 28.2 Common-Sense Theory of Emotion
A stimulus (snarling dog) leads to an emotion of fear, which then leads to bodily arousal (in this case, indicated by shaking) through the autonomic nervous system (ANS). 45

46. James–Lange Theory of Emotion
Learning Objective 28.3: Describe research and theories of emotional experience.
Proposed by William James and Carl Lange
Assumed that a stimulus of some sort produces a physiological reaction and physical arousal leads to the labeling of an emotion
Pitfall: could not prove lack of usual emotions in patients with injured spinal cord

47. Figure 28.3 James–Lange Theory of Emotion
A stimulus leads to bodily arousal first, which is then interpreted as an emotion. 47

48. Cannon–Bard Theory of Emotion (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 28.3: Describe research and theories of emotional experience.
Proposed by physiologists Walter Cannon and Philip Bard
Assumed that emotion and the physiological arousal occur more or less at the same time
The sensory information that comes into the brain is sent simultaneously (by the thalamus) to both the cortex and the organs of the sympathetic nervous system

49. Cannon–Bard Theory of Emotion (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 28.3: Describe research and theories of emotional experience.
Criticism:
Thalamus would have to be very sophisticated to make sense of all the possible human emotions and relay them to the proper areas of the cortex and body
Studies of people with spinal cord injuries appear to suggest that emotions can be experienced without feedback from the sympathetic organs to the cortex

50. Figure 28.4 Cannon–Bard Theory of Emotion
A stimulus leads to activity in the brain, which then sends signals to arouse the body and interpret the emotion at the same time.

51. Schachter–Singer and Cognitive Arousal Theory of Emotion
Learning Objective 28.3: Describe research and theories of emotional experience.
Proposed by Schachter and Singer
Assumes that both the physical arousal and the labeling of that arousal based on cues from the environment must occur before the emotion is experienced 51

52. Figure 28.5 Schachter–Singer’s Cognitive Arousal Theory of Emotion
Schachter–Singer’s cognitive arousal theory is similar to the James–Lange theory but adds the element of cognitive labeling of the arousal. In this theory, a stimulus leads to both bodily arousal and the labeling of that arousal (based on the surrounding context), which leads to the experience and labeling of the emotional reaction.

53. The Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Learning Objective 28.3: Describe research and theories of emotional experience..
Assumption that facial expressions provide feedback to the brain concerning the emotion being expressed, which in turn causes and intensifies the emotion
The more one smiles, the happier one feels 53

54. Figure 28.6 Facial Feedback Theory of Emotion
A stimulus such as this snarling dog causes arousal and a facial expression. The facial expression then provides feedback to the brain about the emotion. The brain then interprets the emotion and may also intensify it.

55. Lazarus and the Cognitive-Mediational Theory of Emotion
Learning Objective 28.3: Describe research and theories of emotional experience..
Assumes that a stimulus must be interpreted (appraised) by a person in order to result in a physical response and an emotional reaction

56. Figure 28.7 Lazarus’s Theory of Emotion
In Lazarus’s cognitive-mediational theory of emotion, a stimulus causes an immediate
appraisal (e.g., “The dog is snarling and not behind a fence, so this is dangerous”). The
cognitive appraisal results in an emotional response, which is then followed by the appropriate bodily response.