1. FUNCTIONALISM Unit 4: Theory and Methods Section
Reading: pages 203 to 206
Exam practice: page 207
Webb et al

2. LINK TO SPECIFICATION
4.3.2 Theory and Methods -Students must examine the following areas:
quantitative and qualitative methods of research; research design
sources of data, including questionnaires, interviews etc.
the distinction between primary/secondary data, and between quantitative/qualitative data
the relationship between positivism, interpretivism and sociological methods; the nature of ‘social facts’
the theoretical, practical and ethical considerations consensus, conflict, structural and social action theories
the concepts of modernity and post-modernity in relation to sociological theory
the nature of science and the extent to which Sociology can be regarded as scientific
the relationship between theory and methods
debates about subjectivity, objectivity and value freedom
the relationship between Sociology and social policy.

3. Learning Objectives
To have a knowledge of the main features of the Functionalist view of the Social System (AO1)
To understand Merton’s contribution of the development of functionalism (AO1)
To be able to evaluate the strengths and limitations of the functionalist perspective of society (AO3)

4. Recapping
Working independently recall as many key words associated with Functionalism as possible

5. Society as a System
In describing Functionalism the term organic analogy is often used, suggesting that society is like a biological organism.
Parsons developed this further, identifying three similarities between society and biological organism
System Organism – like the body, parts of society work together
in a fixed and interdependent way, the parts are institutions i.e.
(the family, the economy)and individuals similarly play individual
roles ensure that society functions effectively
2. System Needs – Functionalists argue that the social system has
basic needs that must be met if it is to survive . E.g. its members
must be socialised if it is to survive
3. Functions – the function of any part of the social system is to ensure the society’s survival and meets the system’s needs e.g. the economy helps the social system by meeting the need for food and shelter

6. Key Concepts
Value Consensus and Social Order – how is social order possible?
Parsons argues that this is achieved through a shared culture i.e. a set of norms and values, beliefs and goals. This is a framework of rules for how individuals should behave. For Parsons members of society should agree on these norms and values and calls this a ‘value consensus’. Working with others identify:
What is expected in Britain?
NORMS
NORMS -
What is expected in Britain?
Driving
Eating
Clothing

7. The Integration of Individuals
The basic function of the value consensus is to make social order possible, by integrating individuals into the social system.
Parsons saw two mechanisms for ensuring that individuals conform to the value consensus and meet the systems needs. The behaviour of each individual should be relatively predictable and stable, allowing co-operation between them
1. Socialisation –Through the socialisation process individuals internalise the system’s norms and values so that society becomes part of their personality structure.
2. Social Control – Positive and negative sanctions punish deviance

8. Parts of the Social System
Integral to Parsons view is the idea that an individual’s behaviour is determined by the social structure. He suggests that (starting from the bottom:
All the subsystems come together to make the social system as a whole
When all institutions are joined
Together they make a subsystem
Status clusters also exist, known as institutions, so a family is made of the related roles of father, son etc.
Each action is governed by status roles (each have a set of norms that tell the individual how they should carry out their duties e.g. teachers must not show favouritism)

9. A- Adaptation : The sub-system meets its members material needs through the economic subsystem
G – Goal Attainment: Society needs to set goals and allocate resources to achieve them. This is the function of the political subsystem
I – Integration: Parts of the system must be integrated together to pursue shared goals. This is the role of the subsystem of religion, education and the media
L – Latency: refers to processes that maintain society over time. The kinship system provides pattern maintenance (socializing individuals to go on performing roles and tension management )
The Systems Needs
For Parsons society is a system with its own needs. The value system co-ordinates the different parts of society to ensure that a system’s needs are met.
Parsons identifies the four basic needs known as the ‘AGIL schema.’ Each need is a separate sub-system of institutions

10. Parsons argues that while carrying out their respective functions, the sub systems ensure society’s needs are met:
Expressive Needs – the channelling of emotions
Instrumental Needs - a means to an end e.g. food sustains the population
Which Subsystems address expression?
Which Subsystems address the above ?
Goal Attainment
Latency
Adaption
Integration

11. Parsons identifies two types of society
Social Change
Parsons identifies two types of society
Particularistic standards – different standards for different people
Individuals put collective interests first
Status is ascribed
Traditional Society
Universalistic standards – equality before the law
Modern Society
Individuals pursue individual self-interest
Status is achieved

12. For Parsons, change from one society to another, was a gradual evolutionary process He sees this as a move in modern societies to complexity and structural differentiation .
Recapping - The Changes in the function of the Family
Brainstorm in groups on A3 the changes in family functions
Traditional Society Modern Society
Primary Functions
Secondary Functions
Primary Functions
Secondary Functions

13. Parsons calls Structural Differentiation – a gradual process in which functionally specialised institutions develop, each meeting a different need.
Parsons sees gradual change as occurring through moving (dynamic) equilibrium.
As change occurs in one part of the system , it produces change in another part.

14. Merton’s Internal Critique of Functionalism (AO3)
He criticises 3 key assumptions of Parsons:
Indispensability (Indispensable definition, absolutely necessary, or essential) - Parsons assumes that everything in society is indispensable in its existing form
Merton argues that this is an untestable assumption and perhaps there are functional alternatives.
He used the example of the Parsons’ work on the family. What is his main criticism of the view that the nuclear family meets the needs of society and the individual?

15. Functional Unity – Parsons assumes that all parts of society are tightly integrated into a single or whole unity and each part is functional for the rest.
Merton questions this, arguing that these assumptions are not necessarily true. Some parts of society can be seen as only distantly related to one another e.g. the structure of banking, and the rules of netball.
Thinking about the Beliefs topic identify parts of society that can be seen as distantly related to one another…………….

16. Universal Functionalism – Parsons assumes that everything in society performs a positive function for society as a whole.
Merton introduces the concept of dysfunctions in society (negative functions) suggesting that it is not always possible to assume that society is a smooth, well integrated system.
He uses the example of a festival, whilst it brings people together who enjoy music, disruptions of transportation and excessive production of rubbish may be seen as a dysfunction
Working independently consider other dysfunctions in society

17. Manifest and Latent Functions
Merton introduced the useful distinction between manifest (Intended function) and latent functions (Unintended or hidden function)
E.G. THE Hoopi Indians , in times of drought performed a rain dance (manifest function), but its untended aim was to create social solidarity at times of hardship(latent function)
It helps create the connections between social phenomenon

18. Marxist Criticisms
Functionalism doesn’t explain conflict and change
Ignores exploitation and divided into classes
Consensus and values merely conceal the interests of the dominant class
This view legitimates the privileged position of powerful groups who would lose from any fundamental changes in society

19. Social Action Theories
Thinks that functionalism has an over-socialised or deterministic view , individuals do have free will or choice
Argues that individuals are not puppets and create society by their interactions
Social Action Theories do not believe that there is a structure ‘out there’ with its own independent system
that dictates behaviour
They see reality as constructed by individuals giving meaning to their worlds, it is not a fixed entity

20. PostModernism
Argues that functionalism assumes that society is stable and orderly; they see it as fragmented
It ignores diversity and instability in society
Criticises functionalism for being a grand-narrative, which provides a model for all societies, fails to recognise the mixing of cultures and societies through globalisation e.g. hybridity

21. Logical Criticisms
The Functionalist argument is teleological that something exists because of its function
EXAMPLE – the family exists because children need to be socialised. BUT these critics argue that the real explanation is one that identifies the cause, and a cause must come before an effect
Functionalism is really unscientific e.g. for some research is only testable if it is falsifiable by testing, but it is difficult to test and falsify Functionalist theories like functions and Dysfunctions.

22. What is good about Functionalism?
The Functionalist provide a useful point for research e.g. on dysfunctions in society
Other theorists borrow the idea of society as a system of interrelated parts
Ian Crain states that it is at least ‘a theory of society as a whole’

23. CONSOLIDATE
Plan an answer for the following question –
Evaluate the claim that functionalism understates both the extent of conflict in society and the ability of social actors to create society through interaction. (20 marks)