1. Psychosocial Development in Infancy: Chapter 7
Human Development & Learning

2. Hail Mary, full of grace! The Lord is with thee; blessed art thou among women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus. Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners now and at the hour of our death. Amen.

3. Where we are headed… Emotional development in infancy Temperament
Primary/Secondary Emotions
Temperament
Theories of psychosocial development
Development of social bonds (Attachment)
Fathers and infant care

4. Emotional Development in Infancy

5. Emotional Development
First six months: Surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust

6. First 6 months: Surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust

7. Emotional Development
Infants’ Emotions
Smiling and Laughing
Social smile (6 weeks): Evoked by viewing human faces
Laughter (3 to 4 months): Often associated with curiosity
Anger
First expressions at around 6 month
Healthy response to frustration
Sadness
Indicates withdrawal and is accompanied by increased production of cortisol
Stressful experience for infants

8. Emotional Development
Fear: Emerges at about 9 months in response to people, things, or situations
Stranger wariness:
Infant no longer smiles at any friendly face but cries or looks frightened when an unfamiliar person moves too close
Separation anxiety:
Tears, dismay, or anger when a familiar caregiver leaves.
Normal at age 1, intensifies by age 2
If it remains strong after age 3, it may be considered an emotional disorder.

9. Toddler’s Emotions
Anger and fear become less frequent and more focused
Laughing and crying become louder and more discriminating
New emotions:
Pride
Shame
Embarrassment
Guilt
Require an awareness of other people
Emerge from family interactions, influenced by the culture
By age 2, children can display the entire spectrum of emotion

10. Emotional Development
Self-awareness
A person’s realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people.
First 4 months: Infants have no sense of self and may see themselves as part of their mothers.*
5 months: Infants begin to develop an awareness of themselves as separate from their mothers.*
15-18 months: Emergence of the Me-self
Sense of self as the “object of one’s knowledge”
Even newborns react differently to the brush of their own hand vs. the brush of another’s hand. This suggests that the very fact that we are embodied causes us to enter the world with at least a primitive concept of me vs. not me.
* This is what your textbook says, but research suggests that this is not the case. See slide notes

11. Emotional Development
Classic experiment (Lewis & Brooks, 1978)
Babies aged 9–24 months looked into a mirror after a dot of rouge had been put on their noses.
None of the babies younger than 12 months old reacted as if they knew the mark was on them.
15- to 24-month-olds: Showed self-awareness by touching their own noses with curiosity.
Video: Rouge test

12. Social Impulses Emotional Self-regulation
Directly connected to maturation of the anterior cingulate gyrus
Particular people begin to arouse specific emotions
Toddlers get angry when a teasing older sibling approaches them or react with fear when entering the doctor’s office.
Memory triggers specific emotions based on previous experiences.
Link: Empathy in Infants

13. Stress Strategies for reducing stress:
Excessive stress can alter the brain
Hypothalamus may grow more slowly
Heightened stress activation
Cognitive changes (e.g., threat sensitivity)
Resilience?
Strategies for reducing stress:
Support new mothers
Involve fathers in infant care
Strengthen parental alliance
Hypothalamus
Regulates various bodily functions and hormone production
May grow more slowly in stressed than in nonstressed infants
Abuse (form of chronic stress)
Potential long-term effects on a child’s emotional development
High levels of stress hormones indicative of emotional impairment
Excessive stress in infants must be prevented
Stress can be avoided by:
providing new mothers with help and emotional support
involving new fathers in the care of the infant
strengthening the relationship between mother and father

14. The HPA Axis
The hypothalamus in the brain is in charge of the stress response. When a stress response is triggered, it sends signals to two other structures: the pituitary gland, and the adrenal medulla. 
These short term responses are produced by The Fight or Flight Response via the Sympathomedullary Pathway (SAM). Long term stress is regulated by the Hypothalamic Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) system.

15. Emotional Synesthesia?
Early emotional confusion due possibly to underdeveloped brain structure that allows electrical impulses to spread across and activate different areas of the brain.
Baby Oliver wakes up with every emotion
Infant synesthesia in general: Mondloch, C.J., & Maurer, D. (2004). Do small white balls squeak? Pitch-object correspondences in young children. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 4(2),
30-month olds shown small white ball and large grey ball, 11 of 12 associated high tone with small white ball.
Less clear-cut with small and large white ball.
Adult synesthetes: small, brightly colored objects make high sounds; large, dark objects associated with low tones.

16. Temperament

17. Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development
Temperament
Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation
Temperament is epigenetic, originating in the genes but affected by child-rearing practices
Closely linked to personality

18. Chess and Thomas’ Classification
Temperament
Chess and Thomas’ Classification
Three basic types or clusters
Easy child (40%): positive mood; quickly establishes routines; adapts easily to new experiences
Difficult child (10%): reacts negatively; cries frequently; has irregular routines; slow to accept new experiences
Slow-to-warm-up child (15%): low activity level; somewhat negative; shows low adaptability; displays low-intensity mood
35% Hard to classify

19. Temperament Over Time
Longitudinal study of infant temperament (Fox et al., 2001): Grouped 4-month-olds into three distinct types based on responses to fearful stimulation
Positive (exuberant)
Negative
Inhibited (fearful vs. low reactive)
Less than half altered their responses as they grew older
Fearful infants were most likely to change
Exuberant infants were least likely to change
Maturation and child rearing has effect on inborn temperament

20. Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development

21. Goodness of Fit
A similarity of temperament and values that produces a smooth interaction between an individual and his or her social context, including family, school, and community
With a good fit
parents of difficult babies build a close relationship
parents of exuberant, curious infants learn to protect them from harm
parents of slow-to-warm-up toddlers give them time to adjust

22. Applications of Goodness-of-Fit
A “difficult” temperament promotes survival during famine conditions in Africa (De Vries, 1984)
Why?
Low activity level is a risk for mental retardation among children raised in a poor institution (Schaffer, 1966)

23. Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development
Psychoanalytic theory
Freud’s psychosexual stages
Erikson’s psychosocial crises
Behaviorism
Direct learning
Social learning
Cognitive theory
Sociocultural Theory
Evolutionary Theory

24. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
FREUD: THE ORAL AND ANAL STAGES
Oral stage (first year): The mouth is the young infant’s primary source of gratification
Anal stage (second year): Infant’s main pleasure comes from the anus (e.g. sensual pleasure of bowel movements and the psychological pleasure of controlling them)
Potential conflicts:
Oral fixation: 1) oral receptive 2) oral aggressive
Anal personality: 1) anal compulsive 2) anal expulsive

25. Erikson’s Psychosocial Crises
Trust versus Mistrust
Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are met
Autonomy versus Shame & Doubt
Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies

26. Erikson’s Psychosocial Crises
Age
Crisis
Relations
Themes
Virtue
Malignancies
I (0-1)
trust vs mistrust
mother
to get, to give in return
HOPE
sensory maladjustment -- withdrawal
II (2-3) -- toddler
autonomy vs shame and doubt
parents
to hold on, to let go
WILL
impulsivity -- compulsion

27. Behaviorism
Parents mold an infant’s emotions and personality through reinforcement and punishment
Social learning
The acquisition of behavior patterns by observing the behavior of others
Demonstrated in the classic Bobo Doll study by Albert Bandura

28. Cognitive Theory
Working model: Set of assumptions that the individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences
Prototype for later relationships
Importance of interpretation of early experiences
Adjusted over time in response to new experiences or reinterpretation of previous experiences.

29. Ethnotheory
A theory that underlies the values and practices of a culture but is not usually apparent to the people within the culture.
Examples?

30. The Effects of Parenting
Proximal parenting
Caregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touching
Distal parenting
Caregiving practices that involve remaining distant from the baby, providing toys, food, and face-to-face communication with minimal holding and touching

31. The Effects of Parenting
Proximal: High compliance, low self-recognition
Distal: Low compliance, high self-recognition (?)

32. Synchrony
A coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant
Synchrony in the first few months
Becomes more frequent and more elaborate
Helps infants learn to read others’ emotions and to develop the skills of social interaction
Synchrony usually begins with parents imitating infants
Video: Still-face experiment

33. Synchrony cont. Still-face technique Conclusions:
An experimental practice in which an adult keeps his or her face unmoving and expressionless in face-to-face interaction with an infant
Babies are very upset by the still face and show signs of stress
Conclusions:
A parent’s responsiveness to an infant aids psychological and biological development
Infants’ brains need social interaction to develop to their fullest

34. Attachment
Attachment is a lasting emotional bond that one person has with another.
Attachments begin to form in early infancy and influence a person’s close relationships throughout life

35. Attachment

36. Attachment Types
Secure attachment: An infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver.
Insecure-avoidant attachment: An infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure, or return.
Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment: An infant’s anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion.
Disorganized attachment: A type of attachment that is marked by an infant’s inconsistent reactions to the caregiver’s departure and return.

37. Measuring Attachment Strange Situation Key behaviors to observe:
A laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants’ reactions to the stress of various adults’ comings and goings in an unfamiliar playroom.
Key behaviors to observe:
Exploration of the toys. A secure toddler plays happily.
Reaction to the caregiver’s departure. A secure toddler misses the caregiver.
Reaction to the caregiver’s return. A secure toddler welcomes the caregiver’s reappearance.

38. Attachment Types

39. Measuring Attachment

40. Does the quality of attachment have significant consequences for later life relationships?
But
Children who do not have a secure attachment style during infancy do not invariably experience difficulties later in life
Children with a secure attachment at age 1 do not always have good adjustment later in life
Yes
Securely attached 1- year-old males show fewer psychological difficulties at older ages
Securely attached infants are more socially and emotionally competent later and more positively viewed
Adult romantic relationships are associated with attachment style developed during infancy

41. Measuring Attachment

42. What roles do parents play in producing attachment?
Mothers
Sensitivity to their infants’ needs and desires is hallmark of mothers of securely attached infants
Aware of moods and feelings
Responsive in face-to-face interactions
Feeds “on demand”
Demonstrates warmth and affection
Responds rapidly and positively to cues
Mothers of secure infants tend to provide the appropriate level of response with interactional synchrony, in which caregivers respond to infants appropriately and both caregiver and child match emotional states.
Way for mothers to produce insecurely attached infants, according to Ainsworth, is to ignore their behavioral cues, to behave inconsistently with them, and to ignore or reject their social efforts.

43. What roles do parents play in producing attachment?
Fathers
Expressions of nurturance, warmth, affection, support, and concern are extremely important to infant emotional and social well-being
Little mention of the father and his potential contributions to the life of the infant in early theorizing and research on attachment.
Ask: Why do you think this is?
First, John Bowlby, who provided the initial theory of attachment, suggested that there was something unique about the mother–child relationship. He believed the mother was uniquely equipped, biologically, to provide sustenance for the child, and he concluded that this capability led to the development of a special relationship between mothers and children.
Second, the early work on attachment was influenced by the traditional social views of the time, which considered it “natural” for the mother to be the primary caregiver, while the father’s role was to work outside the home to provide a living for his family.
Ask: What caused this to change?
Societal norms are changing

44. Social Referencing
Seeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else’s expressions and reactions. That other person becomes a social reference.

45. Fathers as Social Partners
Fathers usually spend less time with infants than mothers do and are less involved parents
Reasons:
Fathers’ own ideas of appropriate male behavior
Mothers often limit fathers’ interactions with their children
Quality of marital relationship is best predictor
Happier husbands tend to be more involved fathers

46. Comparing Mothers and Fathers
Selected research findings:
Teenagers are less likely to lash out at friends and authorities if they experienced a warm, responsive relationship with their fathers as infants (Trautmann-Villalba et al., 2006).
Infants may be equally securely attached to both parents, more attached to their mothers, or more attached to their fathers (Belsky et al., 2006).
Close father–infant relationships can teach infants (especially boys) appropriate expressions of emotion (Boyce et al., 2006).
Close relationships with their infants reduce fathers’ risk of depression (Borke et al., 2007; Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2007).
Mothers tend to engage in more caregiving and comforting, and fathers tend to engage in more high-intensity play (Kochanska et al., 2008).
When toddlers are about to explore, they often seek their father’s approval, expecting fun from their fathers and comfort from their mothers (Lamb, 2000).

47. Infant Day Care Family day care Center day care
Child care that includes several children of various ages and usually occurs in the home of a woman who is paid to provide it.
Center day care
Child care that occurs in a place especially designed for the purpose, where several paid adults care for many children.
Usually the children are grouped by age, the day-care center is licensed, and providers are trained and certified in child development.

48. Infant Day Care

49. Good news: Direct benefits
High-quality child care outside home produces only minor differences
Good news: Indirect benefits
Children in lower income households and those whose mothers are single may benefit
Bad news:
Infants less secure when in low-quality child care
Children who spend long hours in child-care have a lower ability to work independently
Children who spend ten or more hours a week in group child care for a year or more have an increased probability of being disruptive in class
Good news: research finds little or no difference in the strength or nature of parental attachment bonds of infants who have been in high quality child care compared with infants raised solely by their parents.
Ballooning body of research finds that the effects of participation in group child care are neither unambiguously positive or unambiguously negative. What is clear, though, is that the quality of child care is critical.
Good news: Direct benefits
High-quality child care outside home produces only minor differences from home care in most respects, and may even enhance certain aspects of development.
Good news: Indirect benefits
Children in lower income households and those whose mothers are single may benefit from the educational and social experiences in child care, and from higher income produced by parental employment.
Bad news:
Infants may be somewhat less secure when they are placed in low-quality child care, if they are placed in multiple child-care arrangements, or if their mothers are relatively insensitive and unresponsive.
Children who spend long hours in outside-the-home child-care situations have lower ability to work independently and have less effective time management skills.
Children who spend ten or more hours a week in group child care for a year or more have an increased probability of being disruptive in class.

50. The Effects of Infant Day Care
The impact of non-maternal care depends on many factors.
Psychosocial characteristics, including secure attachment, are influenced more by the mother’s warmth than by the number of hours spent in non-maternal care.
Quality of care is crucial, no matter who provides that care.