1. Gender & Peer Relationships
Middle Childhood through Early Adolescence
Chapter 8

2. The Biology of Sex 23 pairs of chromosomes
23rd pair called sex chromosomes
Females have two large X chromosomes
Males’ pair mismatched,have one X and one smaller Y
X and Y chromosomes also differ in function
SRY gene, the sex-determining region of Y
Transforms “indifferent” gonads into testes
Sex differentiation begins at about 5 weeks
Fetus first developed indifferent, unisex gonads
Can become either ovaries or testes
Testes then produce masculinizing hormones
Testosterone, anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH)

3. Sex vs Gender Sex reserved for biologically determined processes
Gender used for socially influenced characteristics
Difficult to apply these conventions consistently

4. Early Sex Role Development
Sex role development includes the:
formation of gender identity
acquisition of gender-related behaviors
Gender identity – awareness of gender assignment and understanding of its meaning (2 ½ yrs of age) – label themselves
Gender stability – understanding that, over time, one’s gender category stays the same (3 -4 yrs)
Gender constancy – recognizing that gender category membership is permanent, that it could never change, even if one’s behavior or appearance were changed to resemble the other gender (around 6 yrs of age) – depends on logical thinking skills

5. Role of Biology in Gender Identity
Genitalia (determines social assignment)
Comfort with chromosomal identity – it is possible that biology can exert an influence on how “male” or “female” one feels, or at least on how comfortable one is with a particular gender assignment
- some have rejected gender reassignment by the
time they reach adolescence, thus socialization
may not be as powerful as it was once thought
to be in the development of gender identity

6. Role of Social Processes
Social assignment – based on genitals
Verbal reminders
Information given – children who know about genitals have a better grasp of gender constancy & their own gender identity is more advanced

7. Gender & Behavior Table 8.1, p. 294
Differences are small & don’t necessarily correspond to stereotypes
Hormonal differences may impact behavior
Differences can be situationally dependent, affected by historical change & related to developmental period
e.g. males & females in the U.S. do not differ on most tests of math achievement before grade 12, even thought they did differ 20 years ago; the more cultural attitudes favor gender equality, there are as many or more girls as boys among top math performers

8. Sex Segregation
Both an outcome of gender differences & a source of gender differences
Females – 2 1/2 ; Males – 3
Cross-cultural
Increases with age until puberty
Borderwork – mixed gender interactions –
follow rules (table 8.2, p. 296)

9. Play
Boys: Higher physical activity & aggression; dominance hierarchies are established via rough & tumble play Spend time with those with shared interests Compete more Themes are adventure & heroism Domineering, power assertive speech Girls: Smaller groups; choice is based more on personality More cooperative Themes are beauty & romance, glamour Collaborative, affiliative speech

10. Role of Biology in Behavior Differences
Hormones – reciprocating relationship: androgens increase aggression and experiences, such as family conflict & aggressive sports can increase androgen levels
Brain structure & functioning – female brains are less lateralized, possibly giving females advantage in language

11. Role of Cognition in Sex Differences
Self-socialization: Children actively seek to make their behavior consistent with their gender identity (gender typical choices), whether or not they experience social pressure to do so
Gender stability increases the likelihood of gender based choices, even over more attractive choices
Gender intensification hypothesis (adolescence) – falling back on stereotyped notions of masculinity/femininity in order to cope with the demands of establishing an adult identity - little evidence for
Gender schemas – networks of expectations and beliefs about male and female characteristics; impact how children evaluate behavior and the kinds of behavior they choose for themselves
Gender stereotypes – beliefs about sex differences – likely to influence behavior even if untrue

12. Role of Parenting in Sex Differences
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory – identification with same sex parent – involves imitation
Social learning theory (modeling & differential treatment)
Mothers talk more, esp about emotions, with girls; more supportive speech with girls
Parents more often pressure boys to not express feelings
Fathers disapprove of cross- sex behavior and have increased levels of confrontation & rough-housing more with sons
Daughters are more often encouraged to yield to peers in conflict & take others’ perspectives & feelings into account

13. Role of Peer Relationships
Sex-segregation – increases the differences beyond biology & parenting
social dosage effect
Adolescents begin to build cross-gender groups, but different interaction styles can create difficulty
Females are less powerful in mixed-gender groups due to more cooperative discourse style
Males are less prepared for intimate relationships & give less support for feeling expression in heterosexual dyads

14. Multidimensional Theory
Multiple reciprocal influences
personal, behavioral, environmental
biology, cognitive, affective, social
distal & proximal processes
Multicultural – there are differences across culture, but most cultures place restrictions on gender roles
Self-monitoring & prediction – internalized standards for performance are developed based on models, learning & others’ responses to behavior; these social influences influence motivation, expectations for success & self-efficacy ( how well can one fit the gender category)

15. Peer Groups
Real-world laboratory for trying out & improving relational skills
Have norms or shared cultural conventions
Help define type & range of relationships & interactions that are likely permissible
Have properties & processes, such as hierarchial organization & cohesiveness

16. Opportunities Provided by Peer Groups
Communication practice
Conflict resolution
Joint goal-setting
Cooperative learning
Shared decision making
Development of empathy
Tolerance for others
Sense of belonging
Competitive & team-player skills

17. Peer Groups Need for acceptance, approval, and belonging ;
identity development – social comparison
Friendship dyads
Cliques – middle childhood, voluntary social or friendship groups of 3 – 9 members, informal, structure is flexible, member turnover is common; decline over course of high-school (de-grouping)
Crowds – larger, reputation based groups, composed of numerous cliques, become more important in mid-adolescence

18. Peer Group Formation & Maintenance
Selection – niche picking (homophily: similar behaviors & attributes)
Influence is primarily indirect as opposed to overtly coercive (i.e. positive reinforcement, modeling, information exchange)
Limits range of opportunities (norms & roles)
Motivation to engage in both beneficial & risky beh.
Participation with the group in shared extracurricular activity – increased high school graduation rates & less criminal activity (esp. for those at high risk)

19. Social Competence
A broad construct with regard to behaviors that are criterion (required) for peer group acceptance (e.g. empathy, valuing relationships, perspective taking, mature moral judgments)
Social skills (eye contact, use of language) – important contributors to social competence
Treatment: a combination of social skills training for individuals & enhancement of the cooperative nature of the individual’s peer group
Competitive & non-competitive activities are important for facilitating social competence & socioemotional development

20. Measurement of Individuals Within the Peer Group
Sociometry – assessment of social competence using children’s nomination of peers to evaluate status (Moreno 1934)
Social preference score – number of positive nominations
Social impact score – total number of nominations (both + & -); a measure of getting noticed

21. Sociometric Statuses
Popular children are those who receive many positive nominations and few negative
Rejected children are those who receive many negative nominations and few positive
Neglected children are those who receive few nominations, either positive or negative
Average children are those who receive an average number of positive and negative nominations (near their group mean)
Controversial children are those who receive many negative and many positive nominations – disruptive, class leaders

22. Sociometrics - Individual Characteristics
Popular: Greater perspective-taking skills, self-regulation, self- control, problem-solving ability
Rejected: Least socially skilled of all groups
Rejected-aggressive: Negativity, disruptiveness – predictive of poor academic records, criminal behavior, drug use, later externalizing problems
Rejected-withdrawn: Socially anxious and inept – predictive of later internalizing probs – depression, loneliness , psychological over-control
Neglected: Less aggressive and less sociable, but not especially anxious
Average: Lower social competence than popular, but less aggression than rejected-aggressive
Controversial: Difficult to typify because they are few in number, status lacks measurement stability

23. Sociometry Gender and cultural differences
Less tolerance of gender-inconsistent behavior by males, socially withdrawn girls less rejected
Aggression associated with peer rejection, and helpfulness is associated with popularity, across Western and non-Western cultures
Some differences in how adults intervene
Stability of categories and outcomes
Popular and rejected, most extreme categories, also the most stable
Neglected and controversial status categories show most instability