1. Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function
Chapter 40
Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function

2. Overview: Diverse Forms, Common Challenges
_______________is the study of the biological form of an organism
_______________is the study of the biological functions an organism performs
The comparative study of animals reveals that ____________________ are closely correlated
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3. Figure 40.1
Figure 40.1 How does a jackrabbit keep from overheating? 3

4. Concept 40.1: Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization
______ and _________ affect the way an animal interacts with its environment
Many different animal ________________have evolved and are determined by the genome
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5. Evolution of Animal Size and Shape
___________________laws constrain strength, diffusion, movement, and heat exchange
As animals increase in size, their __________must be proportionately larger to support their mass
________________________reflects different species’ adaptations to a similar environmental challenge
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6. Seal Penguin Tuna Figure 40.2
Figure 40.2 Convergent evolution in fast swimmers.
Penguin
Tuna 6

7. Exchange with the Environment
Materials such as nutrients, waste products, and gases must be exchanged across the _______ ________________of animal cells
Rate of exchange is proportional to a cell’s _____________ while amount of exchange material is proportional to a cell’s ____________
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8. A ____________________ living in water has a sufficient surface area of plasma membrane to service its entire volume of cytoplasm
______________________with a saclike body plan have body walls that are only __________ _____________, facilitating diffusion of materials
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9. Mouth Gastrovascular cavity Exchange Exchange Exchange 0.1 mm 1 mm
Figure 40.3
Mouth
Gastrovascular
cavity
Exchange
Exchange
Exchange
Figure 40.3 Contact with the environment.
0.1 mm
1 mm
(a) Single cell
(b) Two layers of cells 9

10. In ___ animals such as tapeworms, the distance between cells and the environment is minimized
More complex organisms have highly _______ __________________for exchanging materials
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11. Lung tissue (SEM) Lining of small intestine (SEM) Blood vessels in
Figure 40.4
External environment
CO2
Food O2
Mouth
Animal
body
250 m B l o d
Respiratory
system
Lung tissue (SEM)
Heart
Cells
Digestive
system
Interstitial
fluid
Nutrients
Circulatory
system
Figure 40.4 Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals.
Excretory
system
100 m
50 m
Lining of small
intestine (SEM)
Blood vessels in
kidney (SEM)
Anus
Unabsorbed
matter (feces)
Metabolic waste products
(nitrogenous waste) 11

12. In vertebrates, the space between cells is filled with ______________, which allows for the movement of material into and out of cells
A _________________helps an animal living in a variable environment to maintain a relatively stable internal environment
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13. Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans
Most animals are composed of specialized cells organized into ___________ that have different functions
Tissues make up ___________, which together make up ___________________
Some organs, such as the ______________, belong to more than one organ system
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14. Table 40.1
Table 40.1 Organ Systems in Mammals 14

15. Exploring Structure and Function in Animal Tissues
Different tissues have different structures that are suited to their _______________
Tissues are classified into four main categories: _______________________________________
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16. Epithelial Tissue
_______________ covers the outside of the body and lines the organs and cavities within the body
It contains cells that are _______________
The shape of epithelial cells may be __________ (like dice), _____________ (like bricks on end), or ___________(like floor tiles)
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17. The arrangement of epithelial cells may be __________(single cell layer), _____________ (multiple tiers of cells), or ________________ (a single layer of cells of varying length)
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18. Epithelial Tissue Stratified squamous epithelium Pseudostratified
Figure 40.5aa
Epithelial Tissue
Stratified squamous
epithelium
Figure 40.5 Exploring: Structure and Function in Animal Tissues
Pseudostratified
columnar
epithelium
Cuboidal
epithelium
Simple columnar
epithelium
Simple squamous
epithelium 18

19. Connective Tissue
_______________________mainly binds and supports other tissues
It contains sparsely packed cells scattered throughout an ____________________
The matrix consists of _____________in a liquid, jellylike, or solid foundation
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20. There are three types of connective tissue fiber, all made of __________:
____________________ provide strength and flexibility
____________________ stretch and snap back to their original length
____________________ join connective tissue to adjacent tissues
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21. Connective tissue contains cells, including
______________ that secrete the protein of extracellular fibers
________________ that are involved in the immune system
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22. ______________is a strong and flexible support material
In vertebrates, the fibers and foundation combine to form six major types of connective tissue:
____________________ binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place
______________is a strong and flexible support material
Fibrous connective tissue is found in _______________, which attach muscles to bones, and ______________, which connect bones at joints
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23. ______________ stores fat for insulation and fuel
______________ is composed of blood cells and cell fragments in blood plasma
__________ is mineralized and forms the skeleton
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24. Connective Tissue Loose connective tissue Blood Cartilage
Figure 40.5ba
Connective Tissue
Loose connective tissue
Blood
Collagenous fiber
Plasma
White
blood cells
120 m
55 m
Elastic fiber
Cartilage
Red blood cells
Fibrous connective tissue
Chondrocytes
100 m
Figure 40.5 Exploring: Structure and Function in Animal Tissues
30 m
Chondroitin sulfate
Nuclei
Bone
Adipose tissue
Central
canal
Fat droplets
700 m
150 m
Osteon 24

25. Muscle Tissue
______________ consists of long cells called muscle fibers, which contract in response to nerve signals
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26. It is divided in the vertebrate body into three types:
_______________, or striated muscle, is responsible for voluntary movement
_______________ is responsible for involuntary body activities
________________is responsible for contraction of the heart
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27. Muscle Tissue Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle Nuclei
Figure 40.5ca
Muscle Tissue
Skeletal muscle
Nuclei
Muscle
fiber
Sarcomere
100 m
Smooth muscle
Cardiac muscle
Figure 40.5 Exploring: Structure and Function in Animal Tissues
Nucleus
Muscle fibers
25 m
Nucleus
Intercalated disk
50 m 27

28. Nervous Tissue
______________senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal
Nervous tissue contains
____________, or nerve cells, that transmit nerve impulses
______________, or __________, that help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons
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29. Nervous Tissue Neurons Glia Glia Neuron: Dendrites Cell body Axons of
Figure 40.5da
Nervous Tissue
Neurons
Glia
Glia
15 m
Neuron:
Dendrites
Cell body
Axons of
neurons
Axon
Figure 40.5 Exploring: Structure and Function in Animal Tissues
Blood
vessel
40 m
(Fluorescent LM)
(Confocal LM) 29

30. Coordination and Control
Control and coordination within a body depend on the ________________and the ____________
The endocrine system transmits chemical signals called ______________ to receptive cells throughout the body via blood
A _______________ may affect one or more regions throughout the body
Hormones are relatively ______________, but can have long-lasting effects
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31. Figure 40.6
Figure 40.6 Signaling in the endocrine and nervous systems 31

32. Figure 40.6a
Figure 40.6 Signaling in the endocrine and nervous systems 32

33. Nerve signal transmission is very _________
The ______________ system transmits information between specific locations
The information conveyed depends on a__________________, not the type of signal
Nerve signal transmission is very _________
Nerve impulses can be received by _________, _________ cells, ____________ cells, and _____________cells
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34. Figure 40.6b
Figure 40.6 Signaling in the endocrine and nervous systems 34

35. Concept 40.2: Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals
Animals manage their internal environment by _________________or _______________ to the external environment
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36. Regulating and Conforming
A _________________ uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external, environmental fluctuation
A ______________allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes
Animals may regulate some environmental variables while conforming to others
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37. Figure 40.7
Figure 40.7 The relationship between body and environmental temperatures in an aquatic temperature regulator and an aquatic temperature conformer. 37

38. Homeostasis
Organisms use ___________________to maintain a “steady state” or internal balance regardless of external environment
In humans, ______________________________, and ____________concentration are each maintained at a constant level
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39. Mechanisms of Homeostasis
Mechanisms of homeostasis ________________ in the internal environment
For a given variable, fluctuations above or below a _____________serve as a __________; these are detected by a _____________ and trigger a ________________
The ________________ returns the variable to the set point
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40. Figure 40.8
Figure 40.8 A nonliving example of temperature regulation: control of room temperature. 40

41. Feedback Control in Homeostasis
The dynamic equilibrium of homeostasis is maintained by _______________, which helps to return a variable to a normal range
Most homeostatic control systems function by __________________, where buildup of the end product shuts the system off
_____________________ amplifies a stimulus and does not usually contribute to homeostasis in animals
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42. Alterations in Homeostasis
Set points and normal ranges can change with _________ or show ___________________
In animals and plants, a _______________ governs physiological changes that occur roughly every 24 hours
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43. Figure 40.9
Figure 40.9 Human circadian rhythm. 43

44. Homeostasis can adjust to changes in external environment, a process called _______________
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45. Concept 40.3: Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior
__________________ is the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range
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46. Endothermy and Ectothermy
__________________ animals generate heat by metabolism; birds and mammals are endotherms
__________________ animals gain heat from external sources; ectotherms include most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and nonavian reptiles
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47. ___________________ is more energetically expensive than ectothermy
In general, _______________ tolerate greater variation in internal temperature, while __________________ are active at a greater range of external temperatures
___________________ is more energetically expensive than ectothermy
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48. Figure 40.10
Figure Endothermy and ectothermy. 48

49. Variation in Body Temperature
The body temperature of a ____________varies with its environment
The body temperature of a ________________is relatively constant
The relationship between heat source and body temperature is ________________(that is, not all poikilotherms are ectotherms)
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50. Balancing Heat Loss and Gain
Organisms exchange heat by four physical processes: ______________________________ ______________________________________
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51. Figure 40.11
Figure Heat exchange between an organism and its environment. 51

52. Five adaptations help animals thermoregulate:
Heat regulation in mammals often involves the ____________________: skin, hair, and nails
Five adaptations help animals thermoregulate:
_____________________
_____________________ adaptations
Cooling by ___________________________
___________________ responses
Adjusting ______________________________
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53. Insulation
______________ is a major thermoregulatory adaptation in mammals and birds
_____________________________ reduce heat flow between an animal and its environment
Insulation is especially important in _________ _______________________such as whales and walruses
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54. Circulatory Adaptations
Regulation of _____________ near the body surface significantly affects thermoregulation
Many endotherms and some ectotherms can _____________________________between the body core and the skin
In ________________, blood flow in the skin increases, facilitating heat loss
In ___________________, blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering heat loss
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55. The arrangement of blood vessels in many marine mammals and birds allows for ____________________________
____________________________ transfer heat between fluids flowing in opposite directions and reduce heat loss
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56. Figure 40.12
Figure Countercurrent heat exchangers. 56

57. Some bony _________ and ________ also use countercurrent heat exchanges
Many ________________________ have countercurrent heat exchangers that help maintain a high temperature in the thorax
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58. Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss
Many types of animals lose heat through _______________________from their skin
_______________ increases the cooling effect in birds and many mammals
_____________ or ___________ moistens the skin, helping to cool an animal down
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59. Behavioral Responses
Both endotherms and ectotherms use ________________to control body temperature
Some terrestrial invertebrates have __________ that minimize or maximize absorption of solar heat
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60. Figure 40.13
Figure Thermoregulatory behavior in a dragonfly. 60

61. Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production
_______________is the adjustment of metabolic heat production to maintain body temperature
Thermogenesis is increased by ____________ such as moving or shivering
__________________thermogenesis takes place when _____________ cause mitochondria to increase their metabolic activity
Some ectotherms can also ____________ to increase body temperature
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62. Figure 40.14
Figure Inquiry: How does a Burmese python generate heat while incubating eggs? 62

63. Figure 40.15
Figure Preflight warm-up in the hawkmoth. 63

64. Acclimatization in Thermoregulation
__________ and _______________ can vary their insulation to acclimatize to seasonal temperature changes
When temperatures are subzero, some ectotherms produce “___________” compounds to prevent ice formation in their cells
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65. Physiological Thermostats and Fever
Thermoregulation is controlled by a region of the brain called the __________________
The ________________ triggers heat loss or heat generating mechanisms
____________ is the result of a change to the set point for a biological thermostat
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66. Figure 40.16
Figure The thermostatic function of the hypothalamus in human thermoregulation. 66

67. Concept 40.4: Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment
___________________is the overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal
It determines how much food an animal needs and it relates to an animal’s ________________ ________________________
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68. Energy Allocation and Use
Animals harvest ____________energy from food
Energy-containing molecules from food are usually used to make _________, which powers cellular work
After the needs of staying alive are met, remaining food molecules can be used in ______________
_______________ includes body growth and repair, synthesis of storage material such as fat, and production of gametes
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69. Figure 40.17
Figure Bioenergetics of an animal: an overview. 69

70. Quantifying Energy Use
____________________is the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time
Metabolic rate can be determined by
An animal’s __________
The amount of _______________ or _________ ________________________
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71. Minimum Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
___________________is the metabolic rate of an endotherm at rest at a “comfortable” temperature
___________________is the metabolic rate of an ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature
Both rates assume a ___________________ __________________________animal
Ectotherms have much _________ metabolic rates than endotherms of a comparable size
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72. Influences on Metabolic Rate
Metabolic rates are affected by many factors besides whether an animal is an endotherm or ectotherm
Two of these factors are ______ and ________
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73. Size and Metabolic Rate
Metabolic rate is proportional to body mass to the power of _________________________
_____________________ animals have higher metabolic rates per gram than larger animals
The higher metabolic rate of smaller animals leads to a higher oxygen delivery rate, breathing rate, heart rate, and greater (relative) blood volume, compared with a larger animal
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74. Figure 40.19
Figure The relationship of metabolic rate to body size. 74

75. Activity and Metabolic Rate
______________ greatly affects metabolic rate for endotherms and ectotherms
In general, the maximum metabolic rate an animal can sustain is _________________ to the duration of the activity
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76. Energy Budgets
Different species use energy and materials in food in different ways, depending on their ____________________
Use of energy is partitioned to _____________, activity, ___________________, _________, and _______________________
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77. Figure 40.20
Figure Energy budgets for four animals. 77

78. Torpor and Energy Conservation
_______________ is a physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases
Torpor enables animals to ____________ while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions
_____________________ is long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity
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79. Figure 40.21
Figure Inquiry: What happens to the circadian clock during hibernation? 79

80. Summer torpor, called _______________, enables animals to survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce water
Daily torpor is exhibited by many __________ __________________ and _____________ and seems adapted to feeding patterns
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81. Figure 40.UN01
Figure 40.UN01 Summary figure, Concept 40.2 81