1. IB Course Companion and study guide Cognitive Studies
Paper One Material

2. KEY TERMS and Principles
We think and process in mental representations (images, words, and concepts); people have different mental representations.
We are information processors (bottom up and top down) with mental processes that guide behavior.
Mind can be studied scientifically.
Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors.
Stereotyping, memory reconstructions, false memories, schemas, distortions, encoding, storage, retrieval, sensory, STM, LTM, neural networks …

3. SOME OLD REFERENCES Neisser and Harsch Barlett Brewer and Treyens
Atkinson and Shiffrin
Baddeley and Hitch
Kandel
HM (Milner & Corkin) and Clive Wearing case studies
Loftus
Loftus and Palmer

4. Anderson and Pichert (1978)
Aim: investigate if schemas affect both encoding and retrieval. Procedure: Controlled lab exp. Participants heard a story about two boys who skipped school and spent the day in an isolated house -home of one of the boys. 72 points/details of the house were given. Condition one were told to read from the point of view of a potential housebuyer (e.g. leaking roof, attractive grounds). Condition two from the perspective of a potential burglar (e.g. coin collection, nobody home on Thursdays). Then the participants performed a distraction task for 12 minutes. Then all were asked to recall. In a second trial, half of the participants were given the opposite schema (either burglar or house buyer) and asked to recall details of the house. Half were asked to recall with the original schema. Results: the changed schema group recalled more 7% more details, new schema increased by 10% but original schema details declined. Schema processing seems to affect both encoding and recall. 
1st recall task after 12 minutes and 2nd after five minutes
215 public high school students in small, mid-western town
Found at: html

5. Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
Asked participants to read prose and understand it, while at the same time remembering sequences of numbers—they found that in dual-task experiments there was an increase in reasoning time if people had to undertake a memory dependent task at the same time. Task was also impaired if the participants had to learn sequences of six numbers, but that they could manage to learn sequences of three numbers, do impairment with concurrent task but not catastrophic breakdown.
All undergrads

6. Darley and Gross (1983) labeling effects
John Darley and Paget Gross showed similar effects when they varied whether a young girl, Hannah, seemed poor or wealthy. College students watched a video of Hannah playing in her neighborhood, and read a brief fact sheet that described her background. Some of the students watched Hannah playing in a low-income housing estate, and her parents were described as high school graduates with blue collar jobs; the remaining students watched Hannah behaving similarly, but this time she was filmed playing in a tree-lined middle-class neighborhood, and her parents were described as college-educated professionals. The students were asked to assess Hannah's academic ability after watching her respond to a series of achievement-test questions. In the video, Hannah responded inconsistently sometimes answering difficult questions correctly and sometimes answering simpler questions incorrectly. Hannah's academic ability remained difficult to discern, but that didn't stop the students from using her socioeconomic status as a proxy for academic ability. When Hannah was labeled "middle-class," the students believed she performed close to a fifth-grade level, but when she was labeled "poor," they believed she performed below a fourth-grade level. Rating scale of 1-9
neighborhood and background—4 minutes , Intelligence test video--12 minutes answering 25 questions ranging from 2nd to 6th grade levels
Another experimental level (answering questions or not); control level—only saw the performance tape and given basic information—address and school
Another DV of evaluating how well she would do in math, science, writing, history, baseline skills (responsibility, organization)
Participants also asked to comment on difficulty of test (if middle-class Hannah, test was difficult)
Self-selected, paid ($2.50/hour) sample, 70 Princeton undergrads—30 male and 40 female; 3 participants’ data not used; Hannah was a 4th grader; face not clearly shown; “Teacher evaluation for placement purposes”
Random assignment, matched pairs
Found at: people

7. Eberhardt et al.(2003) racial labels
Jennifer Eberhardt, a social psychologist at Stanford, and her colleagues showed white college students a pictures of a man who was racially ambiguous--he could have plausibly fallen into the "white" category or the "black" category. For half the students, the face was described as belonging to a white man, and for the other half it was described as belonging to a black man. In one task, the experimenter asked the students to spend four minutes drawing the face as it sat on the screen in front of them. Although all the students were looking at the same face, those who tended to believe that race is an entrenched human characteristic drew faces that matched the stereotype associated with the label (see a sample below). The racial labels formed a lens through with the students saw the man, and they were incapable of perceiving him independently of that label.
2 factors—implicit theory (entity and incremental) and racial labels (black and white)
42 white, Stanford students for drawing phase
41 pictures in order to get composite face
Ambiguous face—50% saw white and 50% saw black; black—80% labeled as white or black
Before they drew picture, had to recall the demographic information.
Traits always constant (entity) or traits changing (incremental); entity minded stereotyped.
-1 To + 1 black to white scale, 1-7 certainty scale via NY residents
Found at: its-dangerous-label-people

8. GlanZer and cunitz (1966) 240 Army enlisted men
In lab, participants hear a list of items and then immediately recalled them in any order.
Participants recalled words from the beginning and the end of the list best—u shaped curve. If given a filler/distracter task after hearing last words, primacy effect disappeared but recency effect remained.
1st phase--Words at a two or three second rate
2nd phase—count out loud for 10 or 30 seconds, 10 second group recalled better
Count it right of homonym, same word, or recognizable misspelling

9. Baddley and Hitch (1974)
Participants asked to read prose and understand it while remembering number sequences. Found in dual-task experiment that there was a clear and systematic increase in reasoning time but that task was impaired, although not entirely catastrophic, if the participants had to learn sequences of six rather than three numbers.
Conclusion: more than one unitary store

10. Quinn and McConnel (1996)
Participants either asked to learn word list by either imagery or rehearsal, on own or in presence of concurrent visual noise (changing dot pattern—visual feed) or concurrent verbal noise (foreign language speech—verbal feed).
36 undergrads
Possible practice effects—imagery or vocal rehearsing
Further segmentation of visuo-spatial
Conclusion: Imagery group not affected by verbal but disturbed by visual. Rehearsal group was not disturbed by visual but was by verbal.

11. Pickering and Gathercole (2001)
Working Memory Test Battery for Children—9 subtests that measured 3 central executive, 4 phonological loop, and 2 visuo-spatial sketchpad—recall, block, maze tasks, great variance in recall tasks
750 children ages 4 to 15; 100 identified as special education
Improvement in performance in working memory capacity from the age of 5 until 15 years
Varies widely across individuals of same age, up to 4 to 5 years
Problems of working memory are associated with problem in academic performance.

12. Cole and Scribner (1974)
Word recall task in US and among the Kpelle people of rural Liberia. Memory strategies…
TWO STUDIES
Researchers observed everyday cognitive activities to develop relevant and familiar recall tasks.
Children from different age groups asked to recall as many items as possible from four categories: utensils, clothes, tools, and vegetables.
The non-schooled children did not improve on free recall task after the age of 10. After 15 practice trials, they remembered only two more items to the average of 10 recalled. School attending children learned the lists just as rapidly as children in the US and used same strategy of categorical similarity to recall—maintenance rehearsal practice in school settings.
Illiterate children did not use chunking and did not have serial position effect. When given the list in meaningful narrative—a story, the illiterate children recalled the objects easily and chunked them.
plate cutlass
calabash hoe
pot knife
pan file
cup hammer
potato trousers
onion singlet
banana head tie
orange shirt
coconut hat

13. Rogoff and waddel (1982)
30 Mayan and 30 Salt Lake City children, around 9 y.o.
Mayan children did better in a memory task if they were given one that was meaningful to them in local terms. Researchers made a mini model of Mayan village like the children’s own miniature objects a set of 80 (cars, animals, furniture, etc.) were placed in the model. Then the 20 were removed, and the experimenter asked the children to reconstruct the shown scene—lake and mountain diorama.
Results: the Mayan children did slightly better than the US children.

14. Follow-up Loftus study
150 participants in three independent groups
All saw car accident film.
Hit, smashed, and no question
Did you see broken glass? (week later)
32% of smashed group reported yes as compared to 14% of hit group and 6% of control group.

15. New York University School of Medicine Alzheimer’s Research (Mosconi, 2005)
PET scan of reduced metabolic activity in hippocampus during early stages of Alzheimer’s disease.
Longitudinal study of 53 normal, healthy participants—some for nine years and others for up to 24 years.
Early signs were associated with later Alzheimer’s development.

16. Demasio (2000)
Emotions are physiological signals in reaction to external stimuli, and feelings (conscious interpretation of the emotion) arise when the brain interprets the stimuli.

17. LeDoux’s Theory (1999)
Emotional reactions are flexible due to evolution. 1. short route—amygdala reacts and activates response system 2. long route—sensory input goes via sensory cortex to hippocampus, involves evaluation of stimulus and consideration of an appropriate response
Certain memories have emotional significance that might explain why memories based on emotional events are remembered better, as well as why PTSD patients have problems forgetting.
Studies on rats, shocking, fear inducing, brain lesioning…

18. Lazarus and folkman (1984,8)
Appraisal of threat and appraisal of one’s resources
Problem focused coping—aimed to change the problematic situation that causes stress
Emotion focused coping—handle the emotions rather than changing the situation, ex. Escape, self control, social support, positive reappraisal
Lazarus 1975 Appraisal theory—cognitive factors can modulate stress responses

19. Speisman et al. (1964)
42 midlevel airline executives, 56 undergrads????
Participants viewed film about aboriginal initiation ceremonial genital cutting.
Experimental levels of three different soundtracks (trauma condition—emphasized the pain and mutilation, denial condition— willing and happy, intellectualization condition—anthropological interpretation)
Participants reacted more emotionally to the trauma condition (heart rate and galvanic skin response). Questionnaire, too

20. Sapolsky (1968)
Prolonged stress can damage neurons in the hippocampus but this can be reversed if normal levels of cortisol are restored.
Baboons and humans and rats—blood pressure, stress hormone levels, cholesterol levels, and ability to heal; cortisol, epinephrine, glucocorticoids

21. Lupien et al. (1998)
51 elderly participants to study for three to six years the role of cortisol on memory (convenience sample via ad)
Cortisol secretion was too high in 30% of population.
Excessive cortisol secretion participants showed memory impairment and atrophy of the hippocampus.
2002 follow-up study—two groups (moderate level and high level/impairment), both given anti-cortisol secretion drug metyrapone, then memory test, then hydrocortisone to restore cortisol levels, compared to placebo group; found that moderate group had no problem restoring normal memory function; high level had no memory improvement, hydrocortisone caused even greater memory loss. MRIs, too
Baseline and increased comparisons
Placebo group
Once annual test, 30 days out of the year
Regulation and increase

22. Palva et al. (2010) working memory
Data from EEG and MEG to identify interactive patterns of neurons in cerebral cortex during visual tasks.
Frontal and parietal in coordinating attention and action; occipital lobe in handling and maintaining sensory information about visual stimuli.
Supports Baddeley’s model of working memory

23. Brown and kulik (1977)
Original flashbulb memory study—followed by Neisser and Harsch and Talarico and Rubin
80 participant questionnaires—where they had learned shocking events
40 white and 40 black Americans
Reported vivid memories of where, what, and feelings about shocking public event like assassination of John F. Kennedy
Flashbulb memories, too, of personal or shocking events.
FM caused by the physiological arousal arousal (amygdala).
JFK assassination most recalled.
10 total—last being a self-selected event—Of 80, 73 most most recalled shocking event, like the death of a close relative.
African American participants recalled more civil rights associated events.

24. Riniolo et al. (2003)
Two 1912 hearings--USA and UK and 20 cases from the 91 survivors who addressed state of ship
Whether Titanic sank intact or broken
75% of eyewitnesses said Titanic was breaking and 25% said intact.

25. Kilts (2003) MRI scanners to test product preference
Participants assigned points according to level of attractiveness.
While in scanner, researcher presented pictures of the items to participants and again asked to rate them.
Attractive rating correlated with medial prefrontal cortex activation, localization of sense of self and our personality.
If attracted to a product, we identify with it.
Followup study by Montague, for blind Pepsi and Coca-Cola taste test, 70 participants and preference for Pepsi with activiation of ventral putamen— pleasure center of brain.
Marketing goal of bond between product and consumer –identification with brand.

26. Further study summaries
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