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Figure 22.2 Gastrointestinal tract activities.
Ingestion Food Mechanical breakdown Pharynx Esophagus Chewing (mouth) Churning (stomach) Propulsion Segmentation (small intestine) • Swallowing (oropharynx) • Peristalsis (esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine) Digestion Stomach Absorption Lymph vessel Small intestine Blood vessel Large intestine Mainly H2O Feces Anus Defecation © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.3a Peristalsis and segmentation.
From mouth Peristalsis: Adjacent segments of alimentary tract organs alternately contract and relax, moving food along the tract distally. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.3b Peristalsis and segmentation.
Segmentation: Nonadjacent segments of alimentary tract organs alternately contract and relax, moving food forward then backward. Food mixing and slow food propulsion occur. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.5a The peritoneum and the peritoneal cavity.
Abdominopelvic cavity Vertebra Dorsal mesentery Parietal peritoneum Ventral mesentery Visceral peritoneum Peritoneal cavity Alimentary canal organ Liver Two schematic cross sections of abdominal cavity illustrate the peritoneums and mesenteries. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.30d Mesenteries of the abdominal digestive organs.
Liver Lesser omentum Pancreas Stomach Duodenum Transverse mesocolon Transverse colon Mesentery Greater omentum Jejunum Ileum Visceral peritoneum Parietal peritoneum Urinary bladder Rectum © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.6 Basic structure of the alimentary canal.
Intrinsic nerve plexuses Myenteric nerve plexus Submucosal nerve plexus Glands in submucosa Mucosa Epithelium Lamina propria Muscularis mucosae Submucosa Muscularis externa Longitudinal muscle Circular muscle Serosa Epithelium (mesothelium) Nerve Connective tissue Artery Gland in mucosa Lumen Vein Duct of gland outside alimentary canal Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue Mesentery Lymphatic vessel © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 19.2a The lymphatic system.
Regional lymph nodes: Internal jugular vein Entrance of right lymphatic duct into vein Cervical nodes Entrance of thoracic duct into vein Axillary nodes Thoracic duct Cisterna chyli Aorta Inguinal nodes Collecting lymphatic vessels Drained by the right lymphatic duct Drained by the thoracic duct General distribution of collecting lymphatic vessels and regional lymph nodes. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.12a Microscopic structure of the esophagus.
Mucosa (stratified squamous epithelium) Submucosa (areolar connective tissue) Lumen Muscularis externa • Circular layer • Longitudinal layer Adventitia (fibrous connective tissue) © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 18.24a Arteries of the abdomen.
Diaphragm Abdominal aorta L. gastric artery Inferior phrenic arteries R. gastric artery Common hepatic artery Hepatic artery proper L Celiac trunk Gastro- duodenal artery Splenic artery R R. gastroepiploic artery Middle suprarenal arteries L. gastroepiploic artery Intestinal arteries Middle colic artery Superior mesenteric artery R. colic artery Renal arteries Ileocolic artery Gonadal arteries Sigmoidal arteries Inferior mesenteric artery L. colic artery Superior rectal artery Lumbar arteries Median sacral artery Common iliac arteries © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Schematic flowchart.
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Figure 18.29a Veins of the abdomen.
Inferior vena cava Inferior phrenic veins Cystic vein Hepatic veins Hepatic portal system Hepatic portal vein Superior mesenteric vein Splenic vein Suprarenal veins Inferior mesenteric vein Renal veins Gonadal veins Lumbar veins R. ascending lumbar vein L. ascending lumbar vein Common iliac veins External iliac vein Internal iliac veins © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Schematic flowchart.
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Figure 14.3 The subdivisions of the ANS.
Parasympathetic Sympathetic Eye Eye Brain stem Salivary glands Skin* Cranial Sympathetic ganglia Salivary glands Heart Cervical Lungs Lungs T1 Heart Stomach Thoracic Stomach Pancreas Liver and gall- bladder Pancreas L1 Liver and gall- bladder Adrenal gland Lumbar Bladder Bladder © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Genitals Genitals Sacral
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Figure 14.4 Parasympathetic division of the ANS.
CN III Ciliary ganglion Eye Lacrimal gland CN VII Pterygopalatine ganglion CN IX Nasal mucosa CN X Submandibular ganglion Submandibular and sublingual glands Otic ganglion Parotid gland Heart Cardiac and pulmonary plexuses Lung Liver and gallbladder Celiac plexus Stomach Pancreas S2 Large intestine S4 Pelvic splanchnic nerves Small intestine Inferior hypogastric plexus Rectum Urinary bladder and ureters Genitalia (penis, clitoris, and vagina) Preganglionic © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Postganglionic CN Cranial nerve S Sacral nerve
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Figure 14.4 Parasympathetic division of the ANS. (2 of 2)
Liver and gallbladder Celiac plexus Stomach Pancreas S2 Large intestine S4 Small intestine Pelvic splanchnic nerves Rectum Inferior hypogastric plexus Urinary bladder and ureters Genitalia (penis, clitoris, and vagina) Preganglionic Postganglionic CN Cranial nerve S Sacral nerve © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.7b Anatomy of the oral cavity (mouth).
Upper lip Gingivae (gums) Superior labial frenulum Palatine raphe Palatoglossal arch Hard palate Palatopharyngeal arch Soft palate Uvula Palatine tonsil Posterior wall of oropharynx Tongue Sublingual fold with openings of sublingual ducts Lingual frenulum Opening of Submandibular duct Gingivae (gums) Oral vestibule Inferior labial frenulum Lower lip Anterior view © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.9 The salivary glands.
Tongue Teeth Parotid gland Ducts of sublingual gland Parotid duct Masseter muscle Frenulum of tongue Body of mandible (cut) Sublingual gland Posterior belly of digastric muscle Mylohyoid muscle (cut) Submandibular duct Anterior belly of digastric muscle Submandibular gland Mucous cells Serous cells forming demilunes © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Enamel Dentin Crown Dentinal tubules Pulp cavity (contains
Figure Longitudinal section of a canine tooth within its bony socket (alveolus). Enamel Dentin Crown Dentinal tubules Pulp cavity (contains blood vessels and nerves) Neck Gingival sulcus Gingiva (gum) Cement Root canal Root Periodontal ligament Apical foramen © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone
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Figure 22.7a Anatomy of the oral cavity (mouth).
Soft palate Palatoglossal arch Uvula Hard palate Oral cavity Palatine tonsil Tongue Oropharynx Lingual tonsil Epiglottis Hyoid bone Laryngopharynx Esophagus Trachea © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Sagittal section of the oral cavity and pharynx
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Figure 22.13 Deglutition (swallowing).
Bolus of food Tongue Uvula Pharynx Bolus Epiglottis Epiglottis Glottis Trachea Upper esophageal sphincter Bolus Esophagus During the buccal phase, the upper esophageal sphincter is contracted. The tongue presses against the hard palate, forcing the food bolus into the oropharynx. 1 The pharyngeal-esophageal phase begins as the uvula and larynx rise to prevent food from entering respiratory passageways. The tongue blocks off the mouth. The upper esophageal sphincter relaxes, allowing food to enter the esophagus. 2 The constrictor muscles of the pharynx contract, forcing food into the esophagus inferiorly. The upper esophageal sphincter contracts (closes) after food enters. 3 Relaxed muscles Peristalsis moves food through the esophagus to the stomach. 4 The gastroesophageal sphincter surrounding the cardial oriface opens, and food enters the stomach. 5 Relaxed muscles Circular muscles contract Bolus of food Longitudinal muscles contract Circular muscles contract Gastroesophageal sphincter closed Gastroesophageal sphincter opens Stomach © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.12a Microscopic structure of the esophagus.
Mucosa (stratified squamous epithelium) Submucosa (areolar connective tissue) Lumen Muscularis externa • Circular layer • Longitudinal layer Adventitia (fibrous connective tissue) © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.13 Deglutition (swallowing). (4 of 5)
Relaxed muscles Peristalsis moves food through the esophagus to the stomach. 4 Circular muscles contract Bolus of food Longitudinal muscles contract Gastroesophageal sphincter closed Stomach © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.13 Deglutition (swallowing). (5 of 5)
The gastroesophageal sphincter surrounding the cardial oriface opens, and food enters the stomach. 5 Relaxed muscles Circular muscles contract Gastroesophageal sphincter opens © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.14a Anatomy of the stomach.
Cardia Fundus Esophagus Muscularis externa Serosa Longitudinal layer Circular layer Oblique layer Body Lumen Lesser curvature Rugae of mucosa Greater curvature Pyloric sphincter (valve) at pylorus Pyloric canal Pyloric antrum Duodenum © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.15b Microscopic anatomy of the stomach.
Gastric pits Surface epithelium (mucous cells) Gastric pit Mucous neck cells Parietal cell Gastric gland Chief cell Enteroendocrine cell Enlarged view of gastric pits and gastric glands © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.15c Microscopic anatomy of the stomach.
Pepsinogen Pepsin HCI Mitochondria Parietal cell Chief cell Enteroendocrine cell Location of the HCl-producing parietal cells and pepsin-secreting chief cells in a gastric gland © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.18 Mechanism of HCl secretion by parietal cells.
Gastric gland Blood capillary Chief cell Stomach lumen CO2 CO2 + H2O H+-K+ ATPase Carbonic anhydrase H2CO3 H+ H+ K+ K+ HCO3− HCI Alkaline tide Parietal cell HCO3− Cl− Cl− Cl− HCO3−- Cl− antiporter Interstitial fluid © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.15b Microscopic anatomy of the stomach.
Gastric pits Surface epithelium (mucous cells) Gastric pit Mucous neck cells Parietal cell Gastric gland Chief cell Enteroendocrine cell Enlarged view of gastric pits and gastric glands © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.15c Microscopic anatomy of the stomach.
Pepsinogen Pepsin HCI Mitochondria Parietal cell Chief cell Enteroendocrine cell Location of the HCl-producing parietal cells and pepsin-secreting chief cells in a gastric gland © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure Neural and hormonal mechanisms that regulate release of gastric juice. Stimulatory events Inhibitory events Cephalic phase Sight and thought of food 1 Cerebral cortex Lack of stimulatory impulses to parasym- pathetic center Cerebral cortex Loss of appetite, depression 1 Conditioned reflex Stimulation of taste and smell receptors 2 Hypothalamus and medulla oblongata Vagus nerve Stomach distension activates stretch receptors 1 Vagovagal reflexes Medulla Vagus nerve Gastrin secretion declines G cells Excessive acidity (pH < 2) in stomach 1 Gastric phase Local reflexes Overrides parasym- pathetic controls Sympathetic nervous system activation Emotional stress 2 Food chemicals (especially peptides and caffeine) and rising pH activate chemoreceptors 2 G cells Gastrin release to blood Stomach secretory activity Entero- gastric reflex Local reflexes Distension of duodenum; presence of fatty, acidic, or hypertonic chyme; and/or irritants in the duodenum 1 Presence of partially digested foods in duodenum or distension of the duodenum when stomach begins to empty 1 Intestinal (enteric) gastrin release to blood Vagal nuclei in medulla Brief effect Intestinal phase Pyloric sphincter Release of enterogastrones (secretin, cholecystokinin, vasoactive intestinal peptide) Distension; presence of fatty, acidic, partially digested food in the duodenum 2 Stimulate Inhibit © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.15c Microscopic anatomy of the stomach.
Pepsinogen Pepsin HCI Mitochondria Parietal cell Chief cell Enteroendocrine cell Location of the HCl-producing parietal cells and pepsin-secreting chief cells in a gastric gland © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.18 Mechanism of HCl secretion by parietal cells.
Gastric gland Blood capillary Chief cell Stomach lumen CO2 CO2 + H2O H+-K+ ATPase Carbonic anhydrase H2CO3 H+ H+ K+ K+ HCO3− HCI Alkaline tide Parietal cell HCO3− Cl− Cl− Cl− HCO3−- Cl− antiporter Interstitial fluid © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.15c Microscopic anatomy of the stomach.
Pepsinogen Pepsin HCI Mitochondria Parietal cell Chief cell Enteroendocrine cell Location of the HCl-producing parietal cells and pepsin-secreting chief cells in a gastric gland © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Bacteria Mucosa layer of stomach A gastric ulcer lesion
Figure Photographs of a gastric ulcer and the H. pylori bacteria that most commonly cause it. Bacteria Mucosa layer of stomach A gastric ulcer lesion H. pylori bacteria © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.1 Alimentary canal and related accessory digestive organs.
Mouth (oral cavity) Parotid gland Sublingual gland Salivary glands* Tongue* Submandibular gland Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Pancreas* (Spleen) Liver* Gallbladder* Transverse colon Duodenum Descending colon Small intestine Jejunum Ascending colon Ileum Cecum Large intestine Sigmoid colon Rectum Appendix Anus Anal canal © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.21 The duodenum of the small intestine, and related organs.
Right and left hepatic ducts of liver Cystic duct Common hepatic duct Bile duct and sphincter Accessory pancreatic duct Mucosa with folds Tail of pancreas Pancreas Gallbladder Jejunum Major duodenal papilla Main pancreatic duct and sphincter Hepatopancreatic ampulla and sphincter Duodenum Head of pancreas © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.25c Microscopic anatomy of the liver.
Interlobular veins (to hepatic vein) Central vein Sinusoids Bile canaliculi Plates of hepatocytes Bile duct (receives bile from bile canaliculi) Fenestrated lining (endothelial cells) of sinusoids Bile duct Portal venule Portal triad Portal arteriole Stellate macrophages in sinusoid walls Portal vein © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.21 The duodenum of the small intestine, and related organs.
Right and left hepatic ducts of liver Cystic duct Common hepatic duct Bile duct and sphincter Accessory pancreatic duct Mucosa with folds Tail of pancreas Pancreas Gallbladder Jejunum Major duodenal papilla Main pancreatic duct and sphincter Hepatopancreatic ampulla and sphincter Duodenum Head of pancreas © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.21 The duodenum of the small intestine, and related organs.
Right and left hepatic ducts of liver Cystic duct Common hepatic duct Bile duct and sphincter Accessory pancreatic duct Mucosa with folds Tail of pancreas Pancreas Gallbladder Jejunum Major duodenal papilla Main pancreatic duct and sphincter Hepatopancreatic ampulla and sphincter Duodenum Head of pancreas © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Small duct Acinar cell Basement membrane Zymogen granules Rough
Figure 22.26a Structure of the enzyme-producing tissue of the pancreas. Small duct Acinar cell Basement membrane Zymogen granules Rough endoplasmic reticulum Duct cell One acinus © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Vein carrying blood to hepatic portal vessel Muscle layers Lumen
Figure 22.22a Structural modifications of the small intestine that increase its surface area for digestion and absorption. Vein carrying blood to hepatic portal vessel Muscle layers Lumen Circular folds Villi © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Microvilli (brush border) Absorptive cells Lacteal Villus Goblet cell
Figure 22.22b Structural modifications of the small intestine that increase its surface area for digestion and absorption. Microvilli (brush border) Absorptive cells Lacteal Villus Goblet cell Blood capillaries Mucosa- associated lymphoid tissue Intestinal crypt Enteroendocrine cells Venule Muscularis mucosae Lymphatic vessel Duodenal gland Submucosa © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Absorptive cells Goblet cells Villi Intestinal crypt
Figure 22.22c Structural modifications of the small intestine that increase its surface area for digestion and absorption. Absorptive cells Goblet cells Villi © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Intestinal crypt
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Figure 22.23 Microvilli of the small intestine.
Mucus granules Microvilli forming the brush border Absorptive cell © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Chyme enter -ing duodenum causes duodenal
Figure Mechanisms promoting secretion and release of bile and pancreatic juice. Chyme enter -ing duodenum causes duodenal enteroendocrine cells to release cholecystokinin (CCK) and secretin. 1 4 Bile salts and, to a lesser extent, secretin transported via bloodstream stimulate Liver to produce bile more rapidly. 5 CCK (via blood stream) causes gallbladder to contract and Hepatopancreatic Sphincter to relax. Bile Enters duodenum. CCK (red dots) and secretin (yellow dots) enter the bloodstream. 2 CCK induces secretion of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice. Secretin causes secretion of HCO3− -rich pancreatic juice. 3 During cephalic and gastric phases, vagal Nerve stimu- lates gallbladder to contract weakly. 6 CCK secretion Secretin secretion © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.30d Mesenteries of the abdominal digestive organs.
Liver Lesser omentum Pancreas Stomach Duodenum Transverse mesocolon Transverse colon Mesentery Greater omentum Jejunum Ileum Visceral peritoneum Parietal peritoneum Urinary bladder Rectum © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.30c Mesenteries of the abdominal digestive organs.
Greater omentum Transverse colon Transverse mesocolon Descending colon Jejunum Mesentery Sigmoid mesocolon Sigmoid colon Ileum © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.29a Gross anatomy of the large intestine.
Left colic (splenic) flexure Transverse mesocolon Right colic (hepatic) flexure Epiploic appendages Transverse colon Superior mesenteric artery Descending colon Haustrum Ascending colon IIeum Cut edge of mesentery IIeocecal valve Tenia coli Sigmoid colon Cecum Appendix Rectum Anal canal External anal sphincter © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.29a Gross anatomy of the large intestine.
Left colic (splenic) flexure Transverse mesocolon Right colic (hepatic) flexure Epiploic appendages Transverse colon Superior mesenteric artery Descending colon Haustrum Ascending colon IIeum Cut edge of mesentery IIeocecal valve Tenia coli Sigmoid colon Cecum Appendix Rectum Anal canal External anal sphincter © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.29b Gross anatomy of the large intestine.
Rectal valve Rectum Hemorrhoidal veins Levator ani muscle Anal canal External anal sphincter Internal anal sphincter Anal columns Pectinate line Anal sinuses Anus © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 22.31 Defecation reflex.
Impulses from cerebral cortex (conscious control) Sensory nerve fibers Feces move into and distend the rectum, stimulating stretch receptors there. The receptors transmit signals along afferent fibers to spinal cord neurons. 1 Voluntary motor nerve to external anal sphincter Sigmoid colon Stretch receptors in wall A spinal reflex is initiated in which parasympathetic motor (efferent) fibers stimulate contraction of the rectum and sigmoid colon, and relaxation of the internal anal sphincter. 2 Rectum External anal sphincter (skeletal muscle) Involuntary motor nerve (parasympathetic division) Internal anal sphincter (smooth muscle) If it is convenient to defecate, voluntary motor neurons are inhibited, allowing the external anal sphincter to relax so feces may pass. 3 © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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ALBUMIN GLOBULIN FIBRINOGEN CLOTTING FACTORS
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