1. Parent-Child Relationships
Historical / Cultural Perspective

2. Looking Back Family is primarily an economic unit throughout history
Family size and structure greatly determined by availability of resources
For the most part, a monogamous nuclear family has been present in many cultures throughout history
Function of Monogamy – controlled childbirth

3. A Look at the Past Upper Classes – Europe
Purpose for having children  carry on the family name
Children were usually raised by a surrogate mother who would breast feed them and teach them.
At school age  boarding school
Families greatly controlled who their child married – preserve estate and name

4. Lower Classes Children  expected contribute to family’s production
Raised by mother
Children would accompany same-sex parent to work/chores  contribute to family’s production at an early age
Children were valued for their contribution to the family income

5. Aboriginal Families: Hunter-Gather  division of labour based on sex
Children highly valued by society provided valuable labour
In agriculturally based aboriginal societies  families were nuclear in structure
Women and children responsible for agriculture – men & boys responsible for hunting and protection
Family Structure / Role of Children
Spousal interdependence  lack of hierarchy
Children highly valued / loved
Corporal punishment for children forbidden

6. Impact of Europeans on Aborigninal Society
Change in way of life  Hunt for profit, not subsistence
Systems theory  change in way of life  change in role and status of women & children
Patriarchy (male dominance and control) begins to emerge
De-valuing of women and children created conflict and role confusion in Aboriginal communities
Intermarriages between Europeans and Aboriginals occurred  temporary in nature

7. Agricultural Communities
women & children economic necessity
Women share relatively equal role with husbands
Labour of children necessary for production
Extended families common children also valued for their role in looking after elderly parents
School  not compulsory
Upper-class boys  formal education
Farm girls  basic literacy
Children often sent away to apprentice for trade
In Canada, pre-1920, women and children had no legal rights  property & responsibility of husband

8. Impact of Industrialization:
Change in production: small farms  large commercial farms & industry  change in family structure  work for hourly wages instead of being self-sufficient
Change in technology labour laws & wages in late 1800’s (Family Wages)  women & children no longer needed for production  change in roles:

9. Evidence of Change
1891 – 13.8% of children between were employed
1921 – 3.2 % of children employed
Women remained at home  provide a nurturing environment for family
Men  earn family income  no longer involved in child raising
Roles now determined by gender  sex-role stereotypes

10. Change in role of children
Children no longer had extended contact with parents – children go to school
Notion of childhood as distinct stage of development emerges
Children no longer expected to care for younger siblings – pursue individual interests

11. Childbearing in Canada Today

12. Factors Affecting The Decision to Have Children
Birth rates have declined sharply since their peak in the early 1960s. Why?
Canadian social system has changed
Social norms regarding sex roles
Women now work at virtually the same rate as men
Attitudes towards marriage and cohabitation
Divorce
Contraception has improved
These changes lead to changes in attitudes towards having children
In past – unreliable contraception meant having children was virtually inevitable for married couples
Also, children are no longer valued for their economic contribution

13. Result of Changes
Couples and individuals no have children for personal fulfillment
BUT children are now economic liablities
Turn to page 305 – 306 – how much does it cost to raise a child today?
Answer: about $155,611 (probably over $200,000 today, depending upon post-secondary education)
As a result, fewer couples are having children, and those that are are having fewer.

14. The Transition to Parenthood:
Transition to parenthood → one of the most significant in life
Family Life Cycle → parenthood is a major normative event (crisis)
Developmental tasks:
Accept new member
Couple must adjust their relationships expectations
Accept new role → responsibilities and norms
Change in self-image
New role → primary care-giver
Division of household tasks and jobs

15. Impact of Parenthood
Marital satisfaction decreases → couple time is reduced, fatigue, lack of privacy as children mature
Lack of time is identified as single biggest complaint of new parents
Financial stresses → children bring significant additional costs! (see chart on page 305 & 306) How much does it cost to raise a child?
Answer: $155,000 (Closer to $200,000 today)

16. Parent-Child Relationships: Attachment Theory
Infant attachment to primary caregiver essential for normal child development
Erik Erikson – 1st stage of development: Trust vs. Mistrust
Infants are utterly dependent – trust is based on dependability and care
Trust – feel safe and secure in world & with parents
Mistrust – develops when care is neglectful and/or caregiver is emotionally unavailable
Results in fear and feelings of insecurity

17. Associated Characteristics of Caring Parent:
“Doting” mother
Father with positive work-family boundaries
Work demands do not override family commitments
Parents are involved and available physically & emotionally

18. Characteristics of Trusting Child
seek out primary caregivers in stressful situations
better adjusted later in life
higher self-confidence and self-esteem
better able to meet challenges of outside world
likely to be socially competent
better able to make transition from dependence to autonomy

19. Insecurely attached infants
Do not feel secure in their parent’s love
Non-involved fathers
Absent mothers – both emotionally and physically
Characteristics of insecurely attached infants:
avoid or resist parents in stressful situations
may remain socially and emotionally underdeveloped into adulthood
difficulty with trust, self-esteem, empathy
feelings of hostility, separation, aggression, low self-confidence

20. Parenting Styles Authoritative
Warmth, support, acceptance, indirect positive control of children
Consequences for behaviour are logical and realistic
Unconditional love
Children are well adjusted psychologically (children learn to accept their own feelings and control their own behaviour, think independently)
Have better self-concept

21. Parenting Styles Authoritarian
Stricter parental control, use of physical and psychological punishment
Children tend to have more problems with psychological adjustment
Children learn love is conditional  feel rejected by parents
High risk for sexual promiscuity, drug abuse & suicide

22. Parenting Styles Permissive
Few rules, children controlling family situations
No recognized structure, rules or guidelines for behaviour
Punishment and rewards are arbitrary and inconsistent
Second chances frequent, threats and bribes are common
Warm and encouraging permissive parents  children tend to be irresponsible, impulsive, immature
Hostile and rejecting parents  children tend to be flighty, anxious, emotionally impoverished
High risk for sexual promiscuity, drug abuse & suicide