1. Part 1: The Making of the Modern State
“Nigeria is not a nation. It is a mere geographical expression.”
--Chief Obafemi Awolow
NIGERIA
Part 1: The Making of the Modern State

2. Just for Fun…
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3. Why Study Nigeria? LDC trying to democratize
History of colonialism, military rule, parliamentary democracy & presidential democracy
Ethnic/Religious/Regional Cleavages
Largest population in Africa
Federalism
Resource curse (oil)
Patron-Client Relations (Prebendalism)

4. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Constitutionalism – eluding Nigeria so far
First constitution in 1914
8 more since (latest in 1999)
Military and civilian leaders alike have never felt the need to obey constitutions, and often write new ones upon taking power
Constitutionalism: acceptance of a constitution as a guiding set of principles.

5. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Legitimacy
Newly independent (1960)
Highly fragmented along ethnic, regional, religious lines
The sole stable national institution is the military
Leads to legitimacy of military’s right to rule
Most leaders have been generals
Extremely low legitimacy of government, overall
Massive corruption, distrust of government

6. Influence of British Rule
Deepened ethnic and regional divisions
Indirect rule in the north (Muslim leaders)
Direct rule in south
Christianity
(Islam already in North from Arab traders)
Western-style education
Mostly in south (Christian missionaries)
Independence – 1960
Since then…the ”National Question”
Should we even be a country?
Authoritarian rule – British established chiefs to rule on their behalf
Interventionist state – no “free market”… chiefs expected to rule to meet economic goals set by the British
Individualism – self-interest of capitalism was mixed with state-domination of the economy
Intensification of ethnic politics – Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, Yoruba competed for “rewards” from British

8. Since Independence 1960-1979 – British parliamentary style democracy
Why didn’t it work?

9. Since Independence 1960-1979 – British parliamentary style democracy
Why didn’t it work?
Ethnic divisions made it difficult to identify a majority party or allow a PM to have necessary authority

10. Since Independence 1967-70 Biafran Civil War
First military ruler, Ironsi, justified his authority by announcing his intention to end violence and stop political corruption
Killed in a coup by a 2nd general
Coup sparked the Igbo to fight for independence for their land – called Biafra
Country did remain together, but only under military rule
1979 – Presidential System
Both systems experienced frequent interruptions/periods of Military Rule –frequent coups

11. Since Independence Other Trends
Intensification of ethnic conflict – Hausa-Fulani formed a majority coalition with Igbo, angering the Yoruba
Personalized rule and corruption
Govt revenue goes to Nigerian elite through patron-client system/prebendalism
Federalism – attempt to pacify ethnic tension, though military leaders did not allow much local power
Economic dependence on oil – enriches those in power, who ignore other sectors of the economy
Corruption:
Two military presidents: Babangida and Abacha maintained large foreign bank accounts with regular deposits diverted from Nigerian state (oil $)
Loyalty Pyramids
Senior govt officials are supported by a broader base of loyal junior officials
State control of resources means that those in the pyramid get the spoils, and they alone have access to wealth and influence

12. Prebendalism
Prebendalism, the peculiarly Nigerian version of corruption, is the disbursing of public offices and state rents to one’s ethnic-based clients.” It is an extreme form of clientelism that refers to the practice of mobilizing cultural and other sectional identities by political aspirants and officeholders for the purpose of corruptly appropriating state resources. Prebendalism is an established pattern of political behavior that justifies the pursuit of and the use of public office for the personal benefit of the office holder and his clients. The official public purpose of the office becomes a secondary concern. As with clientelism, the officeholder's clients comprise a specific set of elites to which he is linked, typically by ethnic or religious ties, and this linkage is key to understanding the concept. There are thus two sides involved in prebendalism, the officeholder and the client, and expectations of benefits by the clients (or supporters) perpetuate the prebendal system.
As practiced in the Babangida and Abacha eras, when official corruption occurred on an unprecedented scale, prebendalism deepened sectional cleavages and eroded the resources of the state. It also discouraged genuinely productive activity and expanded the class of individuals who live off state patronage.

13. Economic Development Rentier State based on oil revenue
Debt because of over-reliance on oil and corruption
1980s Nigeria was forced to turn to international organizations for help in managing its huge national debt
World Bank/International Monetary Fund helped develop economic structural adjustment program
Restructure and diversify Nigerian economy to decrease dependence on oil
Rentier state, like Iran

14. NIGERIA Part 2: Institutions
“The trouble with Nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership. There is nothing basically wrong with the Nigerian character. There is nothing wrong with the Nigerian land or climate or water or air or anything else.”
--Chinua Achebe
NIGERIA
Part 2: Institutions

15. The Basics Democracy (fragile) Federal* Presidential
Territory divided into 36 federal states + federal capital territory, Abuja
Presidential
Bicameral Legislature
*Currently neither checks or balances operate, and state and local governments are totally dependent on the central government

16. The Executive Executive – President and Cabinet
Directly elected, 4 yr term, 2 term limit
2-round/majority model
Candidate must win majority of votes cast AND at least 25% of votes cast in 2/3 of Nigeria’s states
If no candidate wins a majority in the first round, second round pits top two popular vote winners
Patrimonliasm – system of patronage in which the president is at the top
When Buhari takes office on 29 May 2015 as scheduled it will mark the first time in Nigeria's history that an incumbent elected President will peacefully transfer power to an elected leader of the opposition.

17. The Executive
Discussion Question: Why do you think Nigeria has the requirement of winning at least 25% of votes cast in 2/3 of Nigeria’s states to move to the 2nd round?

18. The Executive
Discussion Question: Why do you think Nigeria has the requirement of winning at least 25% of votes cast in 2/3 of Nigeria’s states to move to the 2nd round?
1999 Constitutional requirement
So a purely regional candidate cannot win the presidency
An attempt to help unify the people/country

19. The Executive
May appoint officials to all parts of national government without approval of legislature
leads to patrimonialism: system of patronage in which the president is at the top
Receives all gov’t oil and distributes some to the states as directed by law
Commands armed forces
Can veto laws passed by legislature

20. The Executive Current President: Mahammadu Buhari
Led a coup in 1983 which made him dictator until 1985
President Elect: Goodluck Jonathan
When Buhari takes office on 29 May 2015 as scheduled it will mark the first time in Nigeria's history that an incumbent elected President will peacefully transfer power to an elected leader of the opposition.

21. The Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy – assumed to be bloated, corrupt, and inefficient
Parastatals – privately owned, but headed by government appointees (part of the patron-client network)
Provide public utilities or major industries – water, electricity, etc
State corporatism – parastatals serve to give the appearance of public/private cooperation, while really giving the state control
Jobs in bureaucracy are awarded through prebendalism
Parastatals:
Nigerian Electric Power Administration (NEPA) – called “Never Expect Power Again” by Nigerians
Changed name to Power Holding Company (PHC) – called “Please Hold Candle” by Nigerians

22. The Legislative
Legislature – parliamentary until 1979, now bicameral National Assembly
Senators and Representatives serve 4 year terms, elected the week before the president
Senate
109 Senators, 3 per state, 1 from Abuja
Very diverse given the different regions that are equally represented
House of Representatives
360 members
One of the lowest rates of female representation in legislature in the world
Very little power, but occasionally acts as a check on president (like when Obasanjo wanted a 3rd term)
National Assembly did not ratify President Obasanjo’s plan to alter the Constitution to allow him to run for a 3rd term in 2007

23. The Judiciary
Federal and state courts with an appeals process up to the Supreme Court
Strong and autonomous after independence, but since ravaged by military rule
Most judges today are not well versed in law, easily manipulated by the government
Theoretically in charge of judicial review, not practically
Law is complicated by the sharia which operates in 12 northern states, controversially

24. The Military Guess what? It’s strong!
Military made distinctions between “military in government” and “military in barracks” after early coups
“Military in government” presidents (like Babangida) had to restrain influence of traditional military
Appointed senior military to cabinet positions to make them part of his patronage network
The best place for young Nigerians to improve their lives, demonstrate their talents
Controversial, but it is the one national institution with the capability to restore order
Best and brightest join the military
Members from all parts of Nigeria

25. Linkage Institutions - Political Parties
Regionally & ethnically based
Fragmented Multi-Party System
Parties appear and disappear based on leaders
Recent Parties:
People’s Democratic Party (PDP)
Most long-lasting; Obasanjo, Goodluck Jonathan
Coalition of northern and Yoruba politicians, current & former military leaders, and smaller ethnic groups in middle of country
All Progressives Congress – 2013 three opposition parties merged to challenge PDP in 2015
Buhari’s party
People’s Democratic Party (PDP) – Obasanjo and Yar’Adua’s party of power, “won” in most parts of the country with Southern and Northern candidates
All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP) – General Muhammad Buhari’s party
Action Congress (AC) – merger of many parties, led by Atiku Abubakar (who was disqualified from running in 2007, then reinstated by the Supreme Court days before the election)

26. Political Parties
These parties are becoming less regional, and increasingly run a “ticket” with candidates of different regions, campaigning across all of Nigeria
Why? Because of 1999 Constitutional requirement

27. Interest Groups Have and continue to play a role in Nigerian politics
Some based on religion:
Christian Association of Nigeria; Several Muslim organizations
Some based on professions of educated elite:
Legal professions, physicians, educators
Labor Unions
Were independent and powerful before military oppression of 1980’s
Have regained power in recent years
Nigeria Labor Congress – organized successful general strike in 2007 against elimination of gas subsidies

28. Linkage Institutions - Media
Well developed, independent press
Reflects ethnic interests/issues
TV/ Newspapers more common in urban areas
Parastatals operate over 100 stations
Privately owned TV stations/cable/satellite services
Most outspoken newspapers in South
Radio reaches all of Nigeria – all 36 states have their own – compete with private broadcasters
Cellphone service has overtaken landline
150 million cell phones/187,000 wired phones
2016 – 86 million internet users but only internet hosts {United States has 500,000 hosts}
State radio – broadcasts in local language

29. Part 3: Citizens, Society & the State
NIGERIA
Part 3: Citizens, Society & the State

30. Citizens, Society, and the State
Necessary condition for democratization: citizens need to have time to pay attention and participate in the political process
Problem for Nigeria:
60% live in poverty
Large gap between rich and poor (Gini = 50.6)
Health issues – AIDS epidemic (1 in 11 AIDS carriers are Nigerian)
Literacy – Overall 60% (70% for men, 49% for women)
AIDS:
Gov’t has general made AIDS a secondary priority, leaving much of the challenge to a small group of underfunded NGOs
the gov’t has provided medications through a small number of clinics, but they reach only a few thousand in a country where several million people are estimated to be HIV positive
Literacy
Higher than many other nations in Africa, but below the world average of 87% for men, 77% for women

31. Cleavages One of the most fragmented societies in the world
Ethnicity – 250 to 400 distinct ethnic groups (different languages, religion)
3 Major Ethnic Groups:
Hausa-Fulani – 29%: Muslim groups which dominate the northern half of country
Yoruba – 21%: split btw Muslim, Christian, and indigenous religions; dominate SW third of country (including Lagos)
Igbo (Ibo) – 18%: mostly Christian; live in SE oil-producing region
Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba tribes are largest, but can’t speak each other’s languages and have no contact generally

32. Cleavages
Religion – 50% Muslim, 40% Christian, 10% various native religions
Disputes rooted in preferential treatment British gave to Christians, role of sharia in Nigerian law

33. Cleavages Region – North v. South North: South: Predominantly Muslim
Less educated
Poorer
Less industrialized
Poorer healthcare
South:
Predominantly Christian
More educated
Wealthier (oil reserves)

34. Cleavages
Urban/rural differences – political organizations, interest groups, media only operate in cities
Social class – Educated elite are those with ties to the state, who often use the treasury to benefit themselves
Social Class:
Wealth of elites stems from control of state and resources of the country
Have maintained power by appealing to ethnic and religious identities

35. Civil Society Open and Free
Mostly centered around ethnic identity and religion
Elite – private clubs and professional organizations
Soldiers and veterans belong to military support groups
NGO’s

36. Participation - Elections
Independent National Election Commission (INEC)
Created to help legitimize Nigerian election process
Viewed as corrupt during 2007 election
New reforms helped make 2011 election free and fair (first in Nigerian history)
Same day registration
Local result verification
Cleaning up voting rolls
2015 Presidential elections seen as basically free, fair, and transparent

37. Participation - Elections
The 2015 election had to be postponed due to Independent National Election Commission not delivering voter cards to approx 34% of voters.
2015: approx. 44% turnout
Buhari won all of the Northern states
Buhari won 21 states while Goodluck won 15 states and the Federal Capital Territory(Abuja)

38. Protests & Demonstrations
Since the return of democracy in 1999, a number of ethnic-based & religious movements have mobilized to pressure the federal gov’t to address grievances
Target international oil companies in Niger Delta
July 2002 – unarmed women occupied ChevronTexaco’s Nigerian operations
Ended when officials agreed to provide jobs for women’s sons & set up credit plan to help village women start business
Under Obasanjo, many protests were violently suppressed

39. Protests & Demonstrations
Protest grew in 2006
Groups organized to attack foreign based oil companies
Armed rebel gangs blew up pipelines, disabled pumping states, and kidnapped foreign oil workers
After election of 2011, protests erupted in North b/c Jonathan, a Christian from the South, retained the presidency
Many people believed the informal rule of rotating presidents from north and south had been violated
Nigeria is the world’s 8th largest oil exporter, so these events affected int’l energy markets, contributing to higher prices and tighter supplies
Some companies left b/c of instability
2009 amnesty signed, which calmed things down

40. Protests & Demonstrations
2014: Multiple demonstrations/protests broke out calling on the Nigerian government to rescue schoolgirls kidnapped by the Islamist militant group Boko Haram
In April, more than 200 girls were abducted from their boarding school in northeastern Nigeria
More on Boko Haram
April 30 – Million Woman March