1. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

2. 1.1 Form and Function of Anatomy & Physiology
Study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another
Physiology
Study of the function of body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities
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3. Complementarity of Structure and Function
Anatomy and physiology are inseparable
Function always reflects structure
What a structure can do depends on its specific form
Known as the principle of complementarity of structure and function
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4. 1.2 Structural Organization
Human body is very organized, from the smallest chemical level to whole organism level:
Chemical level: atoms, molecules, and organelles
Cellular level: single cell
Tissue level: groups of similar cells
Organ level: contains two or more types of tissues
Organ system level: organs that work closely together
Organismal level: all organ systems combined to make the whole organism
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5. Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Slide 1
Organelle
Atoms
Molecule
Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level
Atoms combine to form
molecules.
Cellular level
Cells are made up of
molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue
Cardiovascular
system
Tissue level
Tissues consist of similar types
of cells.
Heart
Blood
vessels
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Epithelial
tissue
Organ level
Organs are made up of different
types of tissues.
Organismal level
The human organism is made
up of many organ systems.
Organ system level
Organ systems consist of different
organs that work together closely.
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6. 1.3 Requirements for Life Necessary Life Functions
Maintenance of life involves:
Maintaining boundaries
Movement
Responsiveness
Digestion
Metabolism
Excretion
Reproduction
Growth
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7. Necessary Life Functions
Maintaining boundaries
Separation between internal and external environments must exist
Plasma membranes separate cells
Skin separates organism from environment
Movement
Muscular system allows movement
Of body parts via skeletal muscles
Of substances via cardiac muscle (blood) and smooth muscle (digestion, urination)
Contractility refers to movement at the cellular level
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8. Necessary Life Functions (cont.)
Responsiveness
Ability to sense and respond to stimuli
Withdrawal reflex prevents injury
Control of breathing rate, which must change in response to different activities
Digestion
Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs, followed by absorption of simple molecules into blood
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9. Necessary Life Functions (cont.)
Metabolism
All chemical reactions that occur in body cells
Sum of all catabolism (breakdown of molecules) and anabolism (synthesis of molecules)
Excretion
Removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion
Urea (from breakdown of proteins), carbon dioxide (from metabolism), feces (unabsorbed foods)
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10. Necessary Life Functions (cont.)
Humans are multicellular, so to function, individual cells must be kept alive
Organ systems are designed to service the cells
All cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival needs
There are 11 organ systems that work together to maintain life
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11. Figure 1.3a The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Hair
Nails
Skin
Integumentary System
Forms the external body covering, and
protects deeper tissues from injury.
Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.)
receptors and sweat and oil glands.
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12. Figure 1.3b The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Bones
Joint
Skeletal System
Protects and supports body organs,
and provides a framework the muscles
use to cause movement. Blood cells
are formed within bones. Bones store
minerals.
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13. Figure 1.3c The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Skeletal
muscles
Muscular System
Allows manipulation of the
environment, locomotion, and facial
expression. Maintains posture, and
produces heat.
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14. Figure 1.3d The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Brain
Nerves
Spinal
cord
Nervous System
Fast-acting control system of
the body, Responds to internal and
external changes and activates
appropriate muscles and glands.
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15. Figure 1.3e The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Pineal gland
Thyroid
gland
Pituitary
gland
Thymus
Adrenal
gland
Pancreas
Testis
Ovary
Endocrine System
Glands secrete hormones that
regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use
(metabolism) by body cells.
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16. Figure 1.3f The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Heart
Blood
vessels
Cardiovascular System
Blood vessels transport blood,
which carries oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.
The heart pumps blood.
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17. Figure 1.3g The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Red bone
marrow
Thymus
Lymphatic
vessels
Thoracic
duct
Spleen
Lymph
nodes
Lymphatic System/Immunity
Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and
returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the
lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells
(lymphocytes) involved in immunity.
The immune response mounts the attack
against foreign substances within the body.
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18. Figure 1.3h The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Bronchus
Larynx
Trachea
Lung
Respiratory System
Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen
and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous
exchanges occur through the walls of the air
sacs of the lungs.
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19. Figure 1.3i The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Oral cavity
Esophagus
Liver
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
Anus
Digestive System
Breaks down food into absorbable units
that enter the blood for distribution to
body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are
eliminated as feces.
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20. Figure 1.3j The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
Urinary System
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body.
Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base
balance of the blood.
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21. Figure 1.3k The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Prostate
Penis
Testis
Ductus
deferens
Scrotum
Male Reproductive System
Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce
sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands
aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract.
Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining
female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development
of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to
nourish the newborn.
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22. Figure 1.3l The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Mammary
glands (in
breasts)
Ovary
Uterine
tube
Uterus
Vagina
Female Reproductive System
Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce
sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands
aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract.
Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining
female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development
of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to
nourish the newborn.
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23. Survival Needs
Humans need several factors for survival that must be in the appropriate amounts; too much or too little can be harmful:
Nutrients
Oxygen
Water
Normal body temperature
Appropriate atmospheric pressure
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24. Survival Needs (cont.) Nutrients Oxygen
Chemicals for energy and cell building
Carbohydrates: major source of energy
Proteins: needed for cell building and cell chemistry
Fats: long-term energy storage
Minerals and vitamins: involved in chemical reactions as well as for structural purposes
Oxygen
Essential for release of energy from foods
The body can survive only a few minutes without oxygen
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25. Survival Needs (cont.) Water Normal body temperature
Most abundant chemical in body; provides the watery environment needed for chemical reactions
Also is fluid base for secretions and excretions
Normal body temperature
If body temp falls below or goes above 37°C, rates of chemical reactions are affected
Appropriate atmospheric pressure
Specific pressure of air is needed for adequate breathing and gas exchange in lungs
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26. 1.4 Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in environment
A dynamic state of equilibrium, always readjusting as needed
Maintained by contributions of all organ systems
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27. Homeostatic Controls
Body must constantly be monitored and regulated to maintain homeostasis
Nervous and endocrine systems, as well as other systems, play a major role in maintaining homeostasis
Variables are factors that can change (blood sugar, body temperature, blood volume, etc.)
Homeostatic control of variables involves three components: receptor, control center, and effector
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28. Homeostatic Controls (cont.)
Receptor (sensor)
Monitors environment
Responds to stimuli (things that cause changes in controlled variables)
Control center
Determines set point at which variable is maintained
Receives input from receptor
Determines appropriate response
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29. Homeostatic Controls (cont.)
Effector
Receives output from control center
Provides the means to respond
Response either reduces stimulus (negative feedback) or enhances stimulus (positive feedback)
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30. Homeostatic Controls (cont.)
Negative feedback
Most-used feedback mechanism in body
Response reduces or shuts off original stimulus
Variable changes in opposite direction of initial change
Examples
Regulation of body temperature (a nervous system mechanism)
Regulation of blood glucose by insulin (an endocrine system mechanism)
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31. Homeostatic Controls (cont.)
Example of negative feedback:
Receptors sense increased blood glucose (blood sugar)
Pancreas (control center) secretes insulin into the blood
Insulin causes body cells (effectors) to absorb more glucose, which decreases blood glucose levels
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32. 3 4 2 5 1 1 Input: Information Output: Information sent along afferent
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.
Slide 1 3
Input: Information 4
Output: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
Control
Center
sent along efferent
pathway to effector.
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Receptor
Effector 2
Receptor 5
detects change.
Response
of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level. 1 1
IMBALANCE
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
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33. Temperature-sensitive Temperature-sensitive
Figure 1.5 Body temperature is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism.
Control Center
(thermoregulatory
center in brain)
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Receptors
Temperature-sensitive
cells in skin and brain
Effectors
Sweat glands
Sweat glands activated
Response
Evaporation of sweat
Body temperature falls;
stimulus ends
Body temperature
rises
IMBALANCE
BALANCE
Stimulus: Heat
Stimulus: Cold
Response
Body temperature rises;
stimulus ends
Body temperature
falls
IMBALANCE
Receptors
Effectors
Skeletal muscles
Temperature-sensitive
cells in skin and brain
Efferent
pathway
Afferent
pathway
Shivering begins
Control Center
(thermoregulatory
center in brain)
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34. Homeostatic Controls (cont.)
Positive feedback
Response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect as feedback causes variable to continue in same direction as initial change
Usually controls infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustment, for example:
Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
Platelet plug formation and blood clotting
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35. 1 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall. Positive feedback
Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.
Slide 1 1
Break or tear
occurs in blood
vessel wall.
Positive feedback
cycle is initiated. 3 2
Released
chemicals
attract more
platelets.
Platelets
adhere to site
and release
chemicals.
Positive
feedback
loop
Feedback cycle ends
when plug is formed. 4
Platelet plug
is fully formed. 4
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36. Homeostatic Imbalance
Disturbance of homeostasis
Increases risk of disease
Contributes to changes associated with aging
Control systems become less efficient
If negative feedback mechanisms become overwhelmed, destructive positive feedback mechanisms may take over
Heart failure
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