1. Electronic Media: Then, Now, and Later
Norman J. Medoff and Barbara K. Kaye
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2. From Marconi to Mobile Listening
Chapter 2
From Marconi to Mobile Listening
Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

3. Then: Early Inventors and Inventions
Electrical telegraphy
Samuel Morse—dots and dashes—Morse code
Advantages and disadvantages
Electrical telephony
Alexander Graham Bell—voice - telephone
Point-to-point electrical communication
Despite advantages, there was strong interest in creating a system of wireless communication
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4. Then: Wireless Transmission
James Clerk Maxwell
Theorized radio waves
Heinrich Hertz
Demonstrated radio waves
Oliver Lodge improved tuning of waves
Guglielmo Marconi
Practical demonstration of radio waves
Reginald Fessenden
Transmitted voice and music
Lee de Forest
Amplified weak radio signals
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5. Then: Basis for Broadcast Regulation
U.S. Congress regulates U.S. broadcasting
Airwaves belong to the people
Scarce resource
A tragic lesson
Wireless Ship Act of 1910
Sinking of Titanic
Radio Act of 1912
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6. Then: Radio Becomes a Mass Medium (1 of 3)
Broadcasting
KDKA considered first commercial broadcast station
David Sarnoff saw many uses for radio beyond point to point (Radio Music Box memo)
World War I
Stations operating during war needed government- trained operators and technicians
U.S. government took control of radio stations and of the patents related to radio technology
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7. Then: Radio Becomes a Mass Medium (2 of 3)
The Radio Corporation of America
Created after WWI by companies that had contributed patents to the war effort
RCA functions (manufacture, sales, etc.) divided among the participating companies.
The 1920s
After WWI, broadcasting resumed and grew quickly
Doc Herrold, Frank Conrad, KDKA
Westinghouse marketed radio sets, promoted programs
Department stores and hotels were early broadcasters
Four-letter call sign rule adopted in 1923
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8. Then: Radio Becomes a Mass Medium (3 of 3)
The Growth of Radio
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9. Then: The Rise of Commercial Radio (1 of 4)
How to generate revenue?
WEAF: toll broadcasting; common carrier
Chain broadcasting
One station sends signal to another station via telephone lines; content broadcast simultaneously
Network; station interconnection
Copyright Act of 1907
Protected the intellectual product of artists, writers, composers
ASCAP established 1914 to collect royalties
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10. Then: The Rise of Commercial Radio (2 of 4)
The network system
Created to share content
National Broadcasting Company (NBC, 1926)
United Independent Broadcasters (UIB, 1927)
Radio Act of 1927
Radio Act of 1912 inadequate for commercial radio
1927 Act created Federal Radio Commission
Issued licenses, redesigned use of spectrum, provided channel allocations, regulated stations and networks
Stations must operate in “public interest, convenience, and necessity”
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11. Then: The Rise of Commercial Radio (3 of 4)
The Communications Act of 1934
Created Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
Regulated all radio and related services until legislation’s rewrite
Tackled substandard radio programming
Equal opportunity for political candidates’ use of airwaves
A new network
Mutual Broadcasting System (MBS)
A cooperative of stations that shared programming among members
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12. Then: The Rise of Commercial Radio (4 of 4)
Press/Radio War
Radio newscasts began in 1920s
Newspapers feared competition and tried to limit radio news
Encouraged wire services not to serve radio stations
Wouldn’t print radio program schedules for free
The Biltmore Agreement (1933)
Negotiated restrictions on radio news; didn’t last long
Radio industry developed news operations
Edward R. Murrow (Hear It Now; See It Now)
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13. Then: World War II (1 of 2) U.S. government support for war effort
Shut down many transmitters; stopped building new radio stations; manufacturing turned from making consumer electronics to military equipment
Radio remained popular; radio advertising increased
The Blue Book
Public Service Responsibility for Broadcast Licensees
FCC’s attempt to clarify program standards re: the “public interest, convenience, and necessity”
Nonsponsored programs, local live shows, public- issue programs, advertising
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14. Then: World War II (2 of 2) AM radio evolves
Amplitude modulation
TV lessened radio’s popularity
Radio shifted away from networked content
DJs, formats
Low-power AM stations created in 1993
FM radio captures the audience
Frequency modulation (Armstrong)
Superior sound quality
Slowly overtook AM radio
Focus on music; talk mostly on AM
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15. Now: Satellite Radio Covers vast terrain
Satellites and repeaters
Overcomes shortcoming of terrestrial radio
XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Satellite Radio
Subscription service
Stationary (home) and mobile (auto) receivers
Merged in 2008
Has not led to demise of over-the-air broadcasting, as predicted
Does not offer local channels
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16. Now: Radio Goes Digital
Digital radio
Goal: Switch without making receivers obsolete
IBOC: In-band, on-channel
HD Radio
Allows multiple signals to be sent on channel allocation
Relatively slow adoption
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17. Now: Internet Radio
Began in late 1990s when streaming technology became available
Licensed broadcasters supplement their over-the- air signal
How will they respond to inroads by netcasters?
Netcasters allow listeners to generate individual playlists and “stations”
Pandora, Spotify
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18. Now: New Radio Technology and Copyright Issues
In late 1990s, online file sharing became possible
Peer-to-peer sites (Napster) shared music for free
Music industry claimed lost revenue
U.S. copyright law protects creators’ rights
Copyright protection for specific length of time
Unless in public domain or fair use
ASCAP and BMI created to collect usage fees
Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA)
Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA)
Performance Rights
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19. Later: Internet Radio Can online radio compete with broadcast?
Content: fewer restrictions than broadcast
Portability: wireless Internet and mobile devices
Broadcast radio facing same challenges as in 1950s
Internet radio may now erode radio’s audience, and broadcast radio must again reinvent itself
Provide content listeners cannot get elsewhere?
Return to localism?
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20. Later: Other Technological Considerations
Smartphones can receive broadcast signals, but feature is not usually activated
Smartphone apps may help broadcasters reach mobile audiences
Competing with Pandora would be paradigm shift
From linear to random-access model; from passive to active audience
In-car terrestrial radio listening remains strong
Radio will likely continue to decline
Unless gets boost from mobile delivery
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21. Later: The Role of Government
FCC interested in preserving localism
Satellite radio is national…
…For now
Low-power FM stations (LPFM)
Nonprofit organizations
100 watts allows hyperlocalism
Copyright law
Changes in royalties sought by recording industry would increase expenses to broadcasters
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22. Later: Financial Outlook
Online services continues to gain subscriber and advertising revenue
Satellite radio continues to seek attractive content
Radio stations continue to strive to deliver desired target audiences
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