1. Theories of Language Acquisition
Lecture VII

2. Explaining Second Language Learning
The behaviourist perspective
The innatist perspective
Krashen’s Monitor Model
The cognitive perspective
The competition model
Language and the brain
The interaction hypothesis
The noticing hypothesis
The sociocultural perspective

3. The behaviourist perspective
Nelson Brooks and Robert Lado – proponents in 1960s
Skinner suggested that the same process happens in L2 learning
Classroom activities focused on mimicry and memorization
A L2 learner to start L2 learning based on habits formed in the L1
Often linked to the contrastive analysis hypothesis
Many errors made are not predictable based on the comparison to the L1 and L2
Behaviourism & the contrastive analysis hypothesis qualified as inadequate explanations for SL acquisition by 1970s

4. The innatist perspective
No claims by Chomsky on the implication of his theory for L2 learning
Lydia White claims that the UG is the best perspective to understand L2 acquisition
Others have claimed that UG does not offer a good explanation for the L2 acquisition, esp. by learners who have passed the CPH
Vivian Cook claims that a more general explanation is required as learners know more about the language
Bonnie Schartz claims that language acquisition is based on the availability of natural language in the learner’s environments
The emphasis of UG perspective researchers on language competence in terms of complex grammar

5. Krashan's monitor model (1982)
It is the best known model of L2 acquisition influenced by Chomsky’s theory of L1 acquisition
Five hypotheses describe the model:
Acquisition/learning hypothesis – language is acquired through exposing to samples of languages that we understand with no conscious attention to the form.
We learn consciously paying attention to forms and rules
2. Monitor hypothesis – L2 users edit, monitor and polish the rules and patterns that have been learned. Monitoring takes place when there is plenty of time and the learner wants to produce correct language.
The learned system acts as a monitor.

6. Kashan's monitor model
3. The natural order hypothesis – L2 acquisition develops in predictable sequences similar to L1 acquisition. The language rules that are the easiest to state are not necessarily acquired the first. Ex. Third person singular -s
4. The comprehensible input hypothesis – acquisition occurs when one is exposed to language that is comprehensible and contains i + 1 (i the level of language and 1 the language that is one step beyond that level)
5. Affective filter hypothesis – the affective filter is a metaphorical barrier that prevents learners from acquiring the language when the input is available. ‘Affect’ refers to feelings of anxiety, or negative attitudes which results in poor learning

7. The cognitive perspective
Cognitive psychology active since 1990s
The use of the computer as a metaphor for the mind to compare language acquisition to the capacities of computers for storing, integrating and retrieving information
Cognitive psychologists claim that there is no need to hypothesize that humans have a language-specific module in the brain
They claim that general theories of learning can account for the gradual development of the language
Innatist perspective works for L1 acquisition but not for L2 acquisition
Perception, memory, categorization and generalization processes work best in L2 acquistion

8. Information processing
Knowledge is built up and can be retrieved automatically
Initially learners to concentrate on aspects of language
Later information processing becomes increasingly automatic
Language learning as ”skill learning”
Most learning starts with declarative knowledge which is the knowledge that we are aware of having
Restructuring is the qualitative change in the learner’s knowledge
It is the burst of progress with no instruction or by being exposed to the language
It may also result in backsliding if the learner has incorporated two much or the wrong things

9. The competition model
Described as an explanation to both L1 and L2 acquisition that takes into account not only language form but language meaning and language use too
Through plenty of exposure to the language samples learners understand how to use the ”cues” that signal specific functions, i.e. words in a sentence and animacy
This helps you get the meaning of unknown words
Ex. The boy pushed the box
The box pushed the boy

10. The cognitive perspective
The cognitive perspective emphasizes the role of general human abilities to process and learn information on the basis of experience

11. Language and the brain
Are L1 and L2 languages acquired and represented in the same areas of the brain?
Does the brain process L2 language input differently from L1 input?
The assumption that the language functions were located in the left hemisphere of the brain
Recent studies suggest activation if different locations for L1 and L2
There are differences observed depending on the learners’ age and the level of proficiency
This is a young discipline of linguistics and the research has produces mixed findings

12. The interaction hypothesis
Conversational interaction is an essential criterion for L2 acquisition
Native speakers modify their speech and their interaction patterns in order to help learners participate in conversations
Krashen & Long (1983): comprehensible input is necessary for L2 acquisition
Input can be comprehensible through modified interaction
Opportunities for learners to interact with other speakers
Modified interaction includes elaboration, slower speech rate, gesture, ex. comprehension checks, clarifications requests
Merrill Swain’s comprehensible output hypothesis – speakers must produce language that their interlocutors can understand
Pushing learners ahead in their development

13. The noticing hypothesis
Proposed by Richard Schmidt (1990, 2001)
Nothing is learned unless it is noticed
Learners should become aware of a particular language feature as comprehensible input does not lead to language development
Information processing theories claim that anything that uses the mental processing space contributes to learning
According to the usage-based perspective, the best learning takes place by the frequency with which something is available for processing, not by the learners’ awareness of something in the input

14. The sociocultural hypothesis
The cognitive and language development arise as a result of social interactions
The sociocultural theory views speaking and thinking as tightly interwoven
Speaking activates thinking and people gain control over their mental processes as a result of internalizing of what people say to you and what you say to them
The internalizing occurs when an individual interacts with an interlocutor within his or her zone of proximal development (ZDP)
Is ZDP the same as Krashen’s i +1?