1. Here is a real persons brain
Trying to understand this a difficult task and the first thing scientists start to do is to try and classify and order things - the hope being that you can assign a function to each anatomical part. Sometimes it works and sometimes it doesn’t, but it is the first step in cutting things down to a manageable size.
What you can note from this is that it is wrapped in cling-film = meninges = 3 membranes - they are filled with cerebrospinal fluid which keeps the brain floating and protects it. Bleeding within these membranes squashes the brain and damages it.
From this angle (about here) you can see a clearly distinct bit down the back called the cerebellum - concerned with storing patterned movements. You can’t see so clearly from this angle but it is spilt into two halves, hence two hemispheres.
Up front is the cerebral cortex or cerebral hemispheres. See how it is all folded - probably a cunning device to pack more cells in - lower animals have a much smoother cortex. The valleys are called sulci (or a sulcus) and the hills are called gyri (or a gyrus).
You can just see the start of a massive sulcus here dividing it into two hemispheres. Lateral fissure giving you a temporal lobe, and the eye of faith gives you frontal, parietal and occipital as well (all named after bones).

2. Figure 2.8: The Size of the Cerebral Cortex in Humans and Other Animals

3. But here is a real one.

5. Midline Brain View Lower Level Brain Structures- oldest part of the brain
3 major Brain Stem Structures:
Pons
Medulla
Reticular Formation

6. Hindbrain
1.Medulla oblongata- control breathing, heart rate, blood pressure…
2.Pons- “bridge” connects the forebrain to the midbrain; bundle of nerves pass through it
Transmits info about body movement& involved in functions related to sleep, alertness and respiration
Anesthesia has an affect on this part of the brain
‘A blow to the pons puts you out’

7. 3. Cerebellum- balance and controlling motor activity

8. RAS (reticular activating system)
Attention, sleep and arousal
A network of nerves
Cocktail party phenomenon- you’re in a large noisy crowd but you are able to hear and important sound like your name from a distance
Filters out imp stimulus while ignoring other irrelevant sounds.
Involved in eye movement, hearing and reflexes.

9. Midline Brain View Corpus Callosum – connects 2 brain hemispheres
Thalamus
Sensory relay area
Hypo-
Thalamus
3 F’s…
Feeding,
Fleeing,
Fighting
& Mating
Cere-
Bellum -
Smoothes movements

10. Forebrain
Thalamus- relay station for incoming sensory stimulation and transmits it to the cerebral c cortex for interpretation.
Basal ganglia- voluntary movements walking, talking
Hypothalamus-regulates body temp. appetite, maturation and emotion. control pituitary and autonomic division. Body’s pleasure center

11. Limbic System- Involved in memory, emotion, hunger, sex and aggression
Hippocampus- formation of memories of information, like reading writing
Does the info stay here?
Case study H.M.
Amygdala-evaluates incoming info like faces , voices, and forms emotional responses for the situation.
Study- Psychic blindness- lesions to the amygdala of monkeys

13. the cerebral cortex...

14. Structure relates to function?
Frontal lobe
Temporal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Structure relates to function?
You can see it rather better on this gentleman who has bought a set of highlighters and coloured is lobes in.
Frontal = red, temporal = purple, parietal = green, occipital = brown
To some extent this theory of function following structure works. Largely determined from post mortems from people who have had a stoke or other damage to a specific region of brain and lost specific functions. eg auditory is temporal (1), vision is in the occipital lobe (2), somatic sensory is at the back of the frontal lobe (3), and the motor control is just in front of it.
This is Pocock & Richards diagram of it.

15. Membrane = Meninges Central sulcus Gyrus Gyrus Frontal Parietal lobe
Occipital
lobe
You can’t read it but these are the ones I want you to know -
a ridge is a gyrus
a valley is a sulcus, they divide it into
frontal lobe
temporal lobe
occipital lobe
parietal lobe
which relate to function (a bit - Gernot revisists this in lecture 18/19)
the whole thing is wrapped in 3 membranes = meninges - to support and protect
Cerebellum
Temporal
lobe

16. Brain has 2 Hemispheres Left & Right sides are separate
Corpus Callosum : major pathway between hemispheres
Some functions are ‘lateralized’
Math, language on left
ART , music on right
Lateralization is never 100%
Left
Hemisphere
Corpus Callosum
Right
key words: left hemisphere; right hemisphere

17. Each hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes
Frontal
Parietal
Occipital
Temporal
key words: cerebral cortex; lobes; frontal; parietal; temporal; occipital

18. 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex – Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal (F-POT)
Frontal Lobes: Motor Control, Speech Production, Higher Functions
Broca’s Area

19. Frontal Lobe Motor cortex is found in the frontal lobe
Motor cortex is represented by the upside-down homonculus
The body parts that are moved with more precision are larger in the homonculs ex: the fingers
Association areas: Speech, thinking, memory, emotion, personality

20. 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex – Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal (F-POT)

21. Parietal Lobe Somatosensory cortex is found here
Bodily senses, touch, pain temperature
Upside down homonculus man with most sensitive areas enlarged ex: lips

22. Contralateral Motor Control
Movements controled by motor area
Right hemisphere controls left side of body
Left hemisphere controls right side
Motor nerves cross sides in spinal cord
Somatosensory Cortex
Motor Cortex

23. Homonculus
“Little Man”

25. Sensory Information sent to opposite hemisphere
Left visual
field
Right visual
Optic
nerves
Corpus
Callosum
Left Visual
Cortex
Right Visual
Principle is Contralateral Organization
Sensory data crosses over in pathways leading to the cortex
Visual Crossover
left visual field to right hemisphere
right field to left
Other senses similar
key words: left hemisphere; right hemisphere; visual infomation; touch information

27. Temporal Lobe
Auditory cortex processes sounds of particular frequencies, speech
Wernicke area

28. Occipital
Lobes

29. Corpus Callosum Major ( but not only) pathway between sides
Connects comparable structures on each side
Permits data received on one side to be processed in both hemispheres
Aids motor coordination of left and right side
Corpus Callosum
Medial surface of right hemisphere
Example : You read a geometry problem in a textbook. The words are seen and the visual forms translated into meaning by the language center in the left hemisphere. To solve the problem you have to imagine a cone shaped object. This is accomplished by centers in the right hemisphere. The solution is written down using language generated by the left hemisphere.
What would happen in cases like this if the callosum was damaged ?

30. Corpus Callosum What happens when the corpus callosum is cut?
Sensory inputs are still crossed
Motor outputs are still crossed
Hemispheres can’t exchange data
key words: left hemisphere; right hemisphere; corpus callosum; epilepsy
One method used to treat severely epileptic patients involves cutting the corpus callosum to prevent the spread of seizures acorss the entire brain. The video clip on this slide shows a man who has had such a surgery. Double click on video to start video clip. This clip discusses the types of information processing deficits associated with cutting the corpus callosum and shows a task often used to assess corpus callosum damage. This task is also represented in drawing form on the following slide as well.

31. The ‘Split Brain’ studies
Surgery for epilepsy : cut the corpus callosum
Roger Sperry, 1960’s
Special apparatus
picture input to just one side of brain
screen blocks objects on table from view
Nonverbal
right
hemisphere
Verbal
left
key words: left hemisphere; right hemisphere; corpus callosum; epilepsy
This slide is a schematic of the task shown in the video clip on the previous slide

32. The ‘Split Brain’ studies
I saw an
apple.
“What did
you see?”
Nonverbal
right
hemisphere
Verbal
left
Nonverbal
right
hemisphere
Verbal
left ??
“What did
you see?”
“Using your left hand,
Pick up what you saw.”
Picture to right brain
can’t name the object
left hand can identify by touch
Picture to left brain
can name the object
left hand cannot identify by touch

33. Localization of function
Frontal
Parietal
Occipital
Temporal
key words: cerebral cortex; lobes; frontal; parietal; temporal; occipital

34. Occipital Lobe Input from Optic nerve Contains primary visual cortex
most is on surface inside central fissure
Outputs to parietal and temporal lobes
Occipital
Lobe
Visual
Lobe

35. Temporal Lobe Contains primary auditory cortex
Inputs are auditory, visual patterns
speech recognition
face recognition
word recognition
memory formation
Outputs to limbic System, basal Ganglia, and brainstem
Temporal
Lobe

36. Parietal Lobe hand-eye coordination eye movements attention
Inputs from multiple senses
contains primary somatosensory cortex
Somatosensory
Cortex
Parietal
Lobe
Outputs to Frontal lobe
hand-eye coordination
eye movements
attention

37. Frontal Lobe Contains primary motor cortex No direct sensory input
Working
Memory
Motor
Cortex
Broca’s
Area
Contains primary motor cortex
No direct sensory input
Important planning and sequencing areas
Broca’s area for speech
key words: cerebral cortex; lobes; frontal; motor functions
Frontal lobe is not directly involved in sensation or perception. Its functions are related to motor action (behavior). The motor cortex is the start of nerves that run through the spinal cord to the muscles.
Broca’s area organizes sequences of speech movements. Damage leads to productive aphasia
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex is important in working memory. WM is short term memory for information needed to maintain a context, to prepare for the next step in a sequence of thought, and /or to inhibit irrelevant responses
The wisconsin card sorting task illustrates the importance of working memory in maintaining context and inhibiting irrelevant responses
Prefrontal area for working memory

38. Lobe Disorders Frontal Lobe Broca’s area
productive aphasia- no fluent speech, speak in text speech
Temporal Lobe
Wernickie’s area- difficulty in understanding which words to use correctly
This is a segment of a pegment
key words: cerebral cortex; lobes; frontal; motor functions

39. Brain Plasticity-
The ability of the neurons to create new synapses and to change the strength of synapses.
Neurons can change their function or they sprout axons.

40. Wisconsin Card Sorting Task
Row of 4 example cards set out
Patient is given a deck of 64 different cards
Told to place each card under the one it best matches
key words: frontal lobe; perseverence; Wisconsin Card Sorting task
This slide and the following Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) slides give an example of one of the types of deficits seen in patients with frontal lobe damage. Frontal lobe patients often have problems with perseverance (e.g. switching strategies when an old strategy is ineffective). In the WCST after the patient has figured out the rule (e.g. color) the examiner switches to a new rule (e.g. shape or number). Frontal patients make errors after a rule switch for a longer time than normals, because they perseverate on (fail to inhibit) the old rule.
Told correct or incorrect after each card
Correct!
Must deduce what the underlying rule is.

41. Wisconsin Card Sorting Task
key words: frontal lobe; perseverence; Wisconsin Card Sorting task
These slides are set up in the following manner:
Hit enter once and a row of 4 cards will appear. The cards differ in terms of color, shape and number of the objects on the card. Beforehand, the instructor should select the strategy they want the student to pick (i.e. the correct card is the red card; or the correct card in the one with four objects; or the correct card is the one with the circles on it). The instructor should tell the student to pick the card that is correct. Do not tell the students the strategy you are using or even that there is a strategy. Just say " I want you to tell me which card is correct."
Based on their response, you tell them whether they were right or wrong. After they make one response and give them feedback (whether they were correct or incorrect), hit enter again and the next trial will start and a new set of four cards will appear. Repeat the same process as with the first set of cards.
Eventually the student will pick up on the strategy you are using and will start to get them correct. After the student gets 4 in a row correct, switch strategies (i.e. if the student previously had to pick the card with red objects, now he may have to pick the card with only two objects on it.) The strategy you switch to should be one of the parameters on the card from the previous trial. That is, if the correct card in the previous trial had 2 red circles and your strategy was red objects, now your new strategy on the next card should be either circles or the card with 2 objects. Note how long it takes for the student to catch on and switch strategies.
People with frontal lobe damage will take much longer to switch to a new strategy.
Actions buttons are located on top of each slide. If you choose not to do the WCST or want to get out of it, just click on the arrow button and you will move ot the next lobe of the brain.

42. Wisconsin Card Sorting Task
key words: frontal lobe; perseverence; Wisconsin Card Sorting task
This slide and the following Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) slides give an example of one of the types of deficits seen in patients with frontal lobe damage. Frontal lobe patients often have problems with perseverance (e.g. switching strategies when an old strategy is ineffective).
These slides are set up in the following manner:
Hit enter once and a row of 4 cards will appear. The cards differ in terms of color, shape and number of the objects on the card. Beforehand, the instructor should select the strategy they want the student to pick (i.e. the correct card is the red card; or the correct card in the one with four objects; or the correct card is the one with the circles on it). The instructor should tell the student to pick the card that is correct. Do not tell the students the strategy you are using or even that there is a strategy. Just say " I want you to tell me which card is correct."
Based on their response, you tell them whether they were right or wrong. After they make one response and give them feedback (whether they were correct or incorrect), hit enter again and the next trial will start and a new set of four cards will appear. Repeat the same process as with the first set of cards.
Eventually the student will pick up on the strategy you are using and will start to get them correct. After the student gets 4 in a row correct, switch strategies (i.e. if the student previously had to pick the card with red objects, now he may have to pick the card with only two objects on it.) The strategy you switch to should be one of the parameters on the card from the previous trial. That is, if the correct card in the previous trial had 2 red circles and your strategy was red objects, now your new strategy on the next card should be either circles or the card with 2 objects. Note how long it takes for the student to catch on and switch strategies.
People with frontal lobe damage will take much longer to switch to a new strategy.
Actions buttons are located on top of each slide. If you choose not to do the WCST or want to get out of it, just click on the arrow button and you will move ot the next lobe of the brain.

43. Wisconsin Card Sorting Task
key words: frontal lobe; perseverence; Wisconsin Card Sorting task
This slide and the following Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) slides give an example of one of the types of deficits seen in patients with frontal lobe damage. Frontal lobe patients often have problems with perseverance (e.g. switching strategies when an old strategy is ineffective).
These slides are set up in the following manner:
Hit enter once and a row of 4 cards will appear. The cards differ in terms of color, shape and number of the objects on the card. Beforehand, the instructor should select the strategy they want the student to pick (i.e. the correct card is the red card; or the correct card in the one with four objects; or the correct card is the one with the circles on it). The instructor should tell the student to pick the card that is correct. Do not tell the students the strategy you are using or even that there is a strategy. Just say " I want you to tell me which card is correct."
Based on their response, you tell them whether they were right or wrong. After they make one response and give them feedback (whether they were correct or incorrect), hit enter again and the next trial will start and a new set of four cards will appear. Repeat the same process as with the first set of cards.
Eventually the student will pick up on the strategy you are using and will start to get them correct. After the student gets 4 in a row correct, switch strategies (i.e. if the student previously had to pick the card with red objects, now he may have to pick the card with only two objects on it.) The strategy you switch to should be one of the parameters on the card from the previous trial. That is, if the correct card in the previous trial had 2 red circles and your strategy was red objects, now your new strategy on the next card should be either circles or the card with 2 objects. Note how long it takes for the student to catch on and switch strategies.
People with frontal lobe damage will take much longer to switch to a new strategy.
Actions buttons are located on top of each slide. If you choose not to do the WCST or want to get out of it, just click on the arrow button and you will move ot the next lobe of the brain.

44. Wisconsin Card Sorting Task
key words: frontal lobe; perseverence; Wisconsin Card Sorting task
This slide and the following Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) slides give an example of one of the types of deficits seen in patients with frontal lobe damage. Frontal lobe patients often have problems with perseverance (e.g. switching strategies when an old strategy is ineffective).
These slides are set up in the following manner:
Hit enter once and a row of 4 cards will appear. The cards differ in terms of color, shape and number of the objects on the card. Beforehand, the instructor should select the strategy they want the student to pick (i.e. the correct card is the red card; or the correct card in the one with four objects; or the correct card is the one with the circles on it). The instructor should tell the student to pick the card that is correct. Do not tell the students the strategy you are using or even that there is a strategy. Just say " I want you to tell me which card is correct."
Based on their response, you tell them whether they were right or wrong. After they make one response and give them feedback (whether they were correct or incorrect), hit enter again and the next trial will start and a new set of four cards will appear. Repeat the same process as with the first set of cards.
Eventually the student will pick up on the strategy you are using and will start to get them correct. After the student gets 4 in a row correct, switch strategies (i.e. if the student previously had to pick the card with red objects, now he may have to pick the card with only two objects on it.) The strategy you switch to should be one of the parameters on the card from the previous trial. That is, if the correct card in the previous trial had 2 red circles and your strategy was red objects, now your new strategy on the next card should be either circles or the card with 2 objects. Note how long it takes for the student to catch on and switch strategies.
People with frontal lobe damage will take much longer to switch to a new strategy.
Actions buttons are located on top of each slide. If you choose not to do the WCST or want to get out of it, just click on the arrow button and you will move ot the next lobe of the brain.

45. Wisconsin Card Sorting Task
key words: frontal lobe; perseverence; Wisconsin Card Sorting task
This slide and the following Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) slides give an example of one of the types of deficits seen in patients with frontal lobe damage. Frontal lobe patients often have problems with perseverance (e.g. switching strategies when an old strategy is ineffective).
These slides are set up in the following manner:
Hit enter once and a row of 4 cards will appear. The cards differ in terms of color, shape and number of the objects on the card. Beforehand, the instructor should select the strategy they want the student to pick (i.e. the correct card is the red card; or the correct card in the one with four objects; or the correct card is the one with the circles on it). The instructor should tell the student to pick the card that is correct. Do not tell the students the strategy you are using or even that there is a strategy. Just say " I want you to tell me which card is correct."
Based on their response, you tell them whether they were right or wrong. After they make one response and give them feedback (whether they were correct or incorrect), hit enter again and the next trial will start and a new set of four cards will appear. Repeat the same process as with the first set of cards.
Eventually the student will pick up on the strategy you are using and will start to get them correct. After the student gets 4 in a row correct, switch strategies (i.e. if the student previously had to pick the card with red objects, now he may have to pick the card with only two objects on it.) The strategy you switch to should be one of the parameters on the card from the previous trial. That is, if the correct card in the previous trial had 2 red circles and your strategy was red objects, now your new strategy on the next card should be either circles or the card with 2 objects. Note how long it takes for the student to catch on and switch strategies.
People with frontal lobe damage will take much longer to switch to a new strategy.
Actions buttons are located on top of each slide. If you choose not to do the WCST or want to get out of it, just click on the arrow button and you will move ot the next lobe of the brain.

46. Wisconsin Card Sorting Task
key words: frontal lobe; perseverence; Wisconsin Card Sorting task
* Note: this slide also has an additional "home" action button. If you click on this, you can go back to the first WCST slide and continue on with the task.
This slide and the following Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) slides give an example of one of the types of deficits seen in patients with frontal lobe damage. Frontal lobe patients often have problems with perseverance (e.g. switching strategies when an old strategy is ineffective).
These slides are set up in the following manner:
Hit enter once and a row of 4 cards will appear. The cards differ in terms of color, shape and number of the objects on the card. Beforehand, the instructor should select the strategy they want the student to pick (i.e. the correct card is the red card; or the correct card in the one with four objects; or the correct card is the one with the circles on it). The instructor should tell the student to pick the card that is correct. Do not tell the students the strategy you are using or even that there is a strategy. Just say " I want you to tell me which card is correct."
Based on their response, you tell them whether they were right or wrong. After they make one response and give them feedback (whether they were correct or incorrect), hit enter again and the next trial will start and a new set of four cards will appear. Repeat the same process as with the first set of cards.
Eventually the student will pick up on the strategy you are using and will start to get them correct. After the student gets 4 in a row correct, switch strategies (i.e. if the student previously had to pick the card with red objects, now he may have to pick the card with only two objects on it.) The strategy you switch to should be one of the parameters on the card from the previous trial. That is, if the correct card in the previous trial had 2 red circles and your strategy was red objects, now your new strategy on the next card should be either circles or the card with 2 objects. Note how long it takes for the student to catch on and switch strategies.
People with frontal lobe damage will take much longer to switch to a new strategy.
Actions buttons are located on top of each slide. If you choose not to do the WCST or want to get out of it, just click on the arrow button and you will move ot the next lobe of the brain.

47. Experimental Methods Lesioning Electrical recording
Electrical stimulation

48. Recording and Imaging Techniques
EEG (electroencephalograph)
CT (computed tomography) scan
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
fMRI (functional MRI)

49. Lesion studies: a brain region is destroyed and behavior is observed
Studying the Brain
Lesion studies: a brain region is destroyed and behavior is observed
Lesions of hypothalamus in animals ---> overeating
Strokes interrupt blood flow in brain ---> damage brain

50. Studying the Brain
Electrical Recording: overall brain wave activity monitored by electroencephalograph (EEG)
Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB)

51. Studying the Brain
Imaging techniques allow the living brain to be studied for its activity during behavior
CT scans (computed tomography) used to detect brain structure abnormalities in people w/ mental illness
left temporal tumor
meningitis

52. Studying the Brain
PET scans use radioactive glucose to assess brain activity
Control Ecstasy User

53. MRI for Face Recognition in Normal Volunteer >
Studying the Brain
MRI Scan of Tumor in
Speech Center
MRI scans generate 3D views of the human brain
fMRI – faster version of MRI
MRI for Face Recognition in Normal Volunteer >

54. The Nervous System: Summary
Major structures of the nervous
CNS, Somatic, Autonomic
Two hemispheres & 4 lobes
Organization
contralateral input & output
primary sensory areas
motor areas
Commissure
Localization of functions
Central Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System