1. Solutions and Concentration
Many times in the lab we work with volumes of solutions in mL or L instead of weighing solids out in g.
So we talk about the concentration of a substance dissolved or mixed in solution.

2. Solutions and Concentration
First, definitions:
Solvent: component in solution which is present in greatest quantity; everything else is mixed in it.
Solute: substance in solution which is not present in greatest quantity; may be more than 1 solute; it is mixed in the solvent.
What’s the solute and solvent: 25g benzene is mixed with 30g ethanol.

3. Solutions and Concentration
One of the most important ways to express concentration is called molarity, or M.
Molarity is defined as:

4. Molarity
Note that we usually drop the solute and sln from the units, but remember what they are!
Note also that molarity is also a conversion factor, converting between mol of solute and L of solution!

5. Molarity
Problems:

6. Molarity
In the lab, we also make a lot of dilutions of solutions.
For example, we often buy stock solutions from chemical suppliers. These are premade solutions whose molarity is known (sort of, usually only to 1 or 2 sig figs).

7. Molarity
But what if we don’t want to use a sln that is that concentration? Well, to make a less concentrated sln we dilute the stock sln.
To do this, we take out a measured volume or the stock sln (called an aliquot); put it in a volumetric flask; and then dilute to the mark with the solvent.

8. Molarity
But first we have to do some calculations as we need to figure out exactly how many mL of the stock sln we need.
We know the desired new molarity.
We know how many mL of the new diluted sln we need.

9. Molarity
This is actually a very easy calculation with a very simple equation:
M1V1 = M2V2.
It is sometimes expressed as
McVc = MdVd where c is the concentrated sln, and d is the dilute sln.

10. Molarity
Common Problem: How many mL of a M sln of benzene are required to make mL of a 12.5 mM sln?

11. Solution Stoichiometry

12. Solution Stoichiometry
Look at the following rxn:
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq)  AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
If I mix mL of a 0.100M silver nitrate sln with plenty of sodium chloride sln, how many g of silver chloride may be made?

13. Solution Stoichiometry
This is just a stoichiometry problem where instead of starting with g of silver nitrate, I start with a known volume of a known molar sln of silver nitrate!
The rest is the same.

14. Solution Stoichiometry Problems
If you mix mL of a M silver nitrate sln with mL of a M sln of NaCl, how many g of silver chloride can be produced?
What is the molarity of a silver nitrate sln if mL are required to react with mL of a 0.375M NaCl sln?

15. Solubility of Ionic Salts
How do ionic salts dissolve in water?
It is a surface phenomenon which we’ll go into more detail later.

16. Solubility Rules Not all ionic compounds are soluble in water.
If they don’t dissolve easily, they are either insoluble (almost none dissolves) or they are slightly soluble (some dissolves).
Slightly soluble salts are also called moderately soluble.

17. Solubility Rules Why is solubility important?
For now, it helps us determine whether a substance is a strong electrolyte, a weak electrolyte, or a nonelectrolyte.
It also will help us to predict whether a double displacement rxn will occur.
So we need solubility rules!

18. Solubility Rules Soluble Compounds Exceptions Nitrates None Chlorates
Perchlorates
K is slightly soluble (ss)
Acetates
Ag, Hg(I) are ss
Cl-, Br-, I-
Ag, Pb(II), Hg(I) are insoluble (ins)
Fluorides
Ca, Mg, Sr, Ba, Pb(II) are ins
Sulfates
Sr, Ba, Pb(II), Hg(I) are ins; Ag, Ca are ss
Alkali Metals
KClO4
NH4+

19. Solubility Rules Insoluble Compounds Exceptions Carbonates
Group I, NH4+
Phosphates
Chromates
Oxalates
Sulfites
Sulfides
Group I, NH4+, Ca, Sr, Ba
Oxides
Li, Na, Ca, Sr, Ba
Hydroxides
Group I, NH4+, Sr, Ba; Ca is ss

20. Solubility Rules Which of the following is soluble?
AlPO4 MgSO4 Na2S Fe(OH)3

21. Electrolytes in Aqueous Solution
In order for an electrical current to be conducted, there are 2 requirements:
Moving particles
Charged particles

22. Electrolytes in Aqueous Solution
Electrolytes: Solutes which break apart into ions in water and thus conduct a current.
We also say that these solutes “ionize” in water.

23. Electrolytes in Aqueous Solution
We separate solutes into 3 classes of electrolytes:
Strong: solutes which ionize 100% and so conduct a strong current.
Soluble ionic compounds and strong acids are strong electrolytes.

24. Electrolytes in Aqueous Solution
Weak: solutes which only partially ionize in water and so conduct a weak current.
Weak acids and bases, and a few ionic compounds are weak electrolytes.
The double arrow means that the rxn does not occur 100% (so is not a completion rxn), but only occurs slightly.
It also means that the rxn is reversible, it goes both ways!

25. Electrolytes in Aqueous Solution
Nonelectrolytes: solutes which do not ionize in water and so do not conduct a current.
Insoluble ionic compounds, insoluble acids and bases, and other soluble and insoluble molecular compounds like water, acetone, and methane.

26. Electrolytes in Aqueous Solution
How do you determine whether a compound is a strong, weak, or nonelectrolyte?
You memorize the ionic solubility rules. (Note: the strong bases you will work with are ionic hydroxide salts like NaOH, so they fall into this rule.) These are strong electrolytes.
You memorize the 7 common strong acids: HCl, HBr, HI, HClO4, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO3. These are strong electrolytes.
All other acids and bases are weak electrolytes unless they state it is insoluble in water.
All others are nonelectrolytes.

27. Electrolytes in Aqueous Solution
Classify the following as strong, weak, or nonelectrolytes:
NaOH Pb(OH)2 FeS
(NH4)2CO3 Ca(OH)2 Citric acid (soluble)
HNO2 Sucrose Nitrogen gas
Triethyl amine (a soluble base)

28. Ionic Equations & Net Ionic Equations
If some acids, bases, and ionic compounds ionize in water to produce ions, shouldn’t we show this somehow in our chemical equations?
When we write an equation showing ions, it is called an ionic equation. If “spectator” ions are canceled out, it is a net ionic equation.
Here’s an example: A barium chloride sln reacts with a silver nitrate sln to produce a silver chloride ppt and a barium nitrate sln.

29.  Ionic Equations & Net Ionic Equations
Your turn: Complete the following rxn in aqueous sln, and write the net ionic equation.
(NH4)2CO3(aq) + ZnCl2(aq) --> ZnCO3(s) + NH4Cl (aq)