1. Knowledge Representation and Reasoning 2
Advance Artificial Intelligence

2. Knowledge Representation & Reasoning
Knowledge representation is the study of how knowledge about the world can be represented and what kinds of reasoning can be done with that knowledge.
We will discuss two different systems that are commonly used to represent knowledge in machines and perform algorithmic reasoning:
Propositional calculus
Predicate calculus
Advance Artificial Intelligence

3. Advance Artificial Intelligence
Predicate Calculus
So it is a better idea to use predicates instead of propositions.
This leads us to predicate calculus.
Predicate calculus has symbols called
object constants,
relation constants, and
function constants
These symbols will be used to refer to objects in the world and to propositions about the word.
Advance Artificial Intelligence

4. Advance Artificial Intelligence
Components
Object constants:
Strings of alphanumeric characters beginning with either a capital letter or a numeral.
Examples: XY, Allahabad, 154, H1B
Function constants:
Strings of alphanumeric characters beginning with a lowercase letter and (sometimes) superscripted by their “arity”:
Examples: fatherOf1, distanceBetween2
Advance Artificial Intelligence

5. Advance Artificial Intelligence
Components
Relation constants:
Strings of alphanumeric characters beginning with a capital letter and (sometimes) superscripted by their “arity”:
Examples: BeatsUp2, Tired1
Other symbols:
Propositional connectives , , , and , delimiters (, ), [, ], and separator ,.
Advance Artificial Intelligence

6. Advance Artificial Intelligence
Terms
An object constant is a term.
A function constant of arity n, followed by n terms in parentheses and separated by commas, is a term.
Examples: fatherOf(Sunita), times(3, minus(5, 2))
Advance Artificial Intelligence

7. Advance Artificial Intelligence
Wffs
Atoms:
A relation constant of arity n followed by n terms in parentheses and separated by commas is an atom. An atom is a wff.
Examples: Tired(Tanya), OlderThan(Pawan, Afsa)
Propositional wffs:
Any expression formed out of predicate-calculus wffs in the same way that the propositional calculus forms wffs out of other wffs is a propositional wff.
Example: OlderThan(Pawan, Afsa)  OlderThan(Afsa, Komal)
Advance Artificial Intelligence

8. Advance Artificial Intelligence
Interpretations
An interpretation of an expression in the predicate calculus is an assignment that maps
object constants into objects in the world,
n-ary function constants into n-ary functions,
n-ary relation constants into n-ary relations.
These assignments are called the denotations of their corresponding predicate-calculus expressions.
Advance Artificial Intelligence

9. Advance Artificial Intelligence
Interpretations B
Example: Blocks world: A C
Floor
Predicate Calculus World
A A
B B
C C
Fl Floor
On On = {<B,A>, <A,C>, <C, Floor>}
Clear Clear = {<B>}
Advance Artificial Intelligence

10. Advance Artificial Intelligence
Quantification
Introducing the universal quantifier  and the existential quantifier  facilitates the translation of world knowledge into predicate calculus.
Examples:
Paul beats up all professors who fail him.
x(Professor(x)  Fails(x, Paul)  BeatsUp(Paul, x))
There is at least one intelligent IIITA professor.
x(IIITAProf(x)  Intelligent(x))
Advance Artificial Intelligence

11. Note about Resolution Refutation
You have a set of hypotheses h1, h2, …, hn, and a conclusion c.
Your argument is that whenever all of the h1, h2, …, hn are true, then c is true as well.
In other words, whenever all of the h1, h2, …, hn are true, then c is false.
If and only if the argument is valid, then the conjunction h1  h2  …  hn  c is false, because either (at least) one of the h1, h2, …, hn is false, or if they are all true, then c is false.
Therefore, if this conjunction resolves to false, we have shown that the argument is valid.
Advance Artificial Intelligence

12. Advance Artificial Intelligence
Quantification
Introducing the universal quantifier  and the existential quantifier  facilitates the translation of world knowledge into predicate calculus.
Examples:
Paul beats up all professors who fail him.
x(Professor(x)  Fails(x, Paul)  BeatsUp(Paul, x))
There is at least one intelligent UMB professor.
x(UMBProf(x)  Intelligent(x))
Advance Artificial Intelligence

13. Knowledge Representation
a) There are no crazy UMB students.
x (UMBStudent(x)  Crazy(x))
b) All computer scientists are either rich or crazy, but not both.
x (CS(x)  [Rich(x)  Crazy(x)]  [Rich(x)  Crazy(x)] )
c) All UMB students except one are intelligent.
x (UMBStudent(x)  Intelligent(x))  x,y (UMBStudent(x)  UMBStudent(y)  Identical(x, y)  Intelligent(x)  Intelligent(y))
d) Jerry and Betty have the same friends.
x ([Friends(Betty, x)  Friends(Jerry, x)]  [Friends(Jerry, x)  Friends(Betty, x)])
e) No mouse is bigger than an elephant.
x,y (Mouse(x)  Elephant(y)  BiggerThan(x, y))
Advance Artificial Intelligence

14. Advance Artificial Intelligence
Rules of Inference
x P(x)
__________
 P(c) if cU
Universal instantiation
P(c) for an arbitrary cU
___________________
 x P(x)
Universal generalization
x P(x)
______________________
 P(c) for some element cU
Existential instantiation
P(c) for some element cU
____________________
 x P(x)
Existential generalization
Advance Artificial Intelligence

15. Advance Artificial Intelligence
Rules of Inference
Example:
Every IS student is a genius.
Sonal is a IS student.
Therefore, Sonal is a genius.
I(x): “x is an IS student.”
G(x): “x is a genius.”
Advance Artificial Intelligence

16. Advance Artificial Intelligence
Rules of Inference
The steps used can be interpreted as:
Step 1: x (I(x)  G(x))
Step 2: I(Sonal)  G(Sonal)
Find some x such that x is an IS student and then infer that x is genius
If there is some substitution α that makes the premise of the implication identical to sentences already in the knowledge base , then we can assert the conclusion after applying α. In the above case,
{x/Sonal}
Advance Artificial Intelligence

17. Advance Artificial Intelligence
Unification
It is the process of finding substitutions that make different logical expressions look identical.
Unify(p,q) = α
where Subst(α,p) = Subst(α,q)
Advance Artificial Intelligence