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Living in the Environment
Food Resources G. Tyler Miller’s Living in the Environment 13th Edition Chapter 13
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Key Concepts Methods of producing food Increasing food production
Environmental effects of food production Increasing sustainability
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How Is Food Produced? Sources of food
Primary plants: wheat, corn, and rice Primary animals: beef, pork, and chicken
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Kilocalories of fossil fuel input per kilocalorie of protein output
Food Type Kilocalories of fossil fuel input per kilocalorie of protein output Feed lot beef 20-78 Pigs 35 Broiler chicken 22 Rangeland Beef 10 Sheep 10 Vegetables 2-4
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Major Types of Agriculture
Traditional subsistence Traditional intensive Plantation Industrialized (high-input) See Fig p. 280
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Industrialized agriculture in developed countries
Land Labor Capital Fossil fuel energy Industrialized agriculture in developed countries Land Labor Capital Fossil fuel energy Intensive traditional agriculture in developing countries
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Figure 13-8 Page 283 Cropland Forest Irrigated farm land Barren land
Rangeland Wetland Pasture Urban area
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In the US, industrialized ag uses about 17% of all commercial energy
17% of total commercial energy use 4% 2% 6% 5% Crops Livestock Food processing Food distribution and preparation Food production On an average, food eaten in the US has traveled 1,300 miles
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World Food Production Fig. 13-2 p. 279 Plantation agriculture
Industrialized agriculture Shifting cultivation Plantation agriculture Nomadic herding Intensive traditional agriculture No agriculture Fig p. 279
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Producing Food by Green-Revolution Techniques
High-input monoculture Selectively bred or genetically-engineered crops High inputs of fertilizer Extensive use of pesticides High inputs of water Increased intensity and frequency of cropping
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Green Revolutions Fig. 13-6 p. 282 First green revolution
(developed countries) Second green revolution (developing countries) Major International agricultural research centers and seed banks Fig p. 282
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2nd Green revolution products
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Producing Food by Traditional Techniques
Intercropping Polyvarietal cultivation Agroforestry (alley cropping) Polyculture
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Polyculture (perennial crops)
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Agroforestry (shade grown coffee)
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Intercropping (lettuce with legumes)
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Food Production Rapidly increasing Prices decreasing
Shortages in developing countries Approaching limits on meat production
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Feeding the Global Family
“The Hunger Banquet” A simulation game approximating the distribution of wealth, population and food as it is in the real world.
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Welcome to the First World!
You are a privileged citizen of countries such as Japan, Germany, Australia and the US. You are part of the 15% of the world’s population who lives in the industrial world and you have an almost unlimited access to the goods of the Earth. You have been give 40 chips.
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Welcome to the Second World
You are a member of the “transitional” peoples of the world, a citizen of one of the progressing industrialized countries—such as South Africa, Slovenia, Malaysia and Brazil—where you enjoy 15% of the world’s wealth. You are part of the 10% of the world’s people who have been given a relative buying power in you packet of 8 chips. Please feel free to purchase whatever you can from the luncheon table.
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Welcome to the Third World
You are hereby classified as a citizen of the developing world. Unfortunately, that will be of some disadvantage to your participation in this luncheon for you have only 5% of the world’s wealth. You have been given the buying power of 3 chips.
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Nutrition Undernutrition Malnutrition Overnutrition
Refer to Fig p. 286 Refer to Solutions p. 289
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Marasmus
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Kwashirokor Biafra Salad the Vegetable-Rich, anti-kwashiokor salad According to Betty Anyakoha The ingredients consisted of four wrappings of slightly fermented oil beans locally called "Ugba" or Ukpaka. A cigarette cup of fresh local salad fruit known as anara seeds About two small bundles of local salad leaves "leaves of solanium family Two cigarette cups of sliced and dehydrated cassava locally known as achi or abacha, or jikpu or nsisa, a pinch of potash Four table-spoons of palm oil, salt to test, three table spoons full of water Half a cigarette cup of dehydrated and powdered shrimp or lobsters, and a teaspoon of powdered pepper Wash the local salad fruits and leaves thoroughly in luke-warm water containing a pitch of salt or few drops of milton, drain in a colander also wash the sliced dehydrated cassava achi and leaf in a colander to drain a get soft, slice the drained fruits and leaves to reasonable sizes, roast the oil bean wrappings in open fire for about five minutes, grind the pepper and potash to be mortar done, add desired level of water and oil to the mortar powdered products while stirring vigorously with the addition so as to produce a nice, smooth mixture of orange color stuff called ncha add salt to taste. Put the sliced cassava, sliced local salad leaves and fruits, roasted oil beans, and powdered shrimps to the ncha, mix thoroughly to get the finger licking, saliva-watering, anti-kwashiokor Biafran salad
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Feedback loop Poverty Malnutrition Decreased resistance to disease
High death rate for children energy ability to learn to work Shortened life expectancy Feedback loop
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Environmental Effects of Food Production
Biodiversity loss Soil Air pollution See Fig p. 288 Water Human health
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Increasing World Crop Production
Crossbreeding and artificial selection Genetic engineering (gene splicing) Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) Continued Green Revolution techniques Introducing new foods Working more land See Fig p. 291
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Crop Desired trait (color) Cross breeding Pear Apple Offspring Cross breeding Best results New offspring Desired result
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Phase 1 Make Modified Gene cell gene DNA Plasmid DNA Genetically
Identify and extract gene with desired trait gene DNA Identify and remove portion of DNA with desired trait Plasmid Remove plasmid from DNA of E. coli E. coli DNA Insert extracted DNA (step 2) into plasmid (step3) Genetically modified plasmid plasmid Insert modified plasmid into E. coli Grow in tissue culture to make copies
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Grow Genetically Engineered Plant
Phase 3 Grow Genetically Engineered Plant Transgenic cell from Phase 2 Cell division of transgenic cells Culture cells to form plantlets Transgenic plants with new traits
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Projected Advantages Projected Disadvantages Need less fertilizer Need less water More resistant to insects, plant disease, frost, and drought Faster growth Can grow in slightly salty soils Less spoilage Better flavor Less use of con- ventional pesticides Tolerate higher levels of herbicide use Irreversible and unpredictable genetic and eco- logical effects Harmful toxins in food from possible plant cell mutations New allergens in food Lower nutrition Increased evolution of pesticide- resistant insects and plant diseases Creation of herbicide- resistant weeds Harm beneficial insects Lower genetic diversity
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Quinoa
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Spelt
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Environmental Effects of food production
Biodiversity Loss Soil Loss and degradation of habitat from clearing grasslands and forests and draining wetland Fish kills from pesticide runoff Killing of wild predators to protect livestock Loss of genetic diversity from replacing thousands of wild crop strains with a few monoculture strains Erosion Loss of fertility Salinization Waterlogging Desertification
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Figure 13-13 (2) Page 288 Air Pollution Water
Greenhouse gas emissions from fossil Fuel issue Other air pollutants from fossil fuel use Pollution from pesticide sprays Aquifer depletion Increased runoff and flooding from land cleared to grow crops Sediment pollution from erosion Fish kills from pesticide runoff Surface and groundwater pollution from pesticides and fertilizers Overfertilization of lakes and slow-moving rivers from runoff of nitrates and phosphates from fertilizers, livestock wastes, and food processing wastes
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Human Health Nitrates in drinking water Pesticide residues in drinking water, food, and air Contamination of drinking and swimming water with disease organisms from livestock wastes Bacterial contamination of meat
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Catching and Raising More Fish
Fisheries Fishing methods (See Fig p. 303) Sustainable yield Overfishing Commercial extinction Aquaculture Fish farming and ranching
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(mostly bottom dwelling)
Fish Shellfish Demersal (mostly bottom dwelling) Pelagic (surface dwelling) Crustaceans Mollusks Hake Sardine Anchovy Krill Oyster Clam Herring Shrimp Haddock Mackerel Lobster Octopus Squid Cod Tuna Crab Major types of commercially harvested fish
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Commercial fishing methods
Spotter airplane Trawler fishing Fish farming in cage Purse-seine fishing trawl flap sonar trawl lines fish school trawl bag Fish caught by gills Drift-net fishing float buoy Long line fishing lines with hooks
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Kilocalories of fossil fuel input per kilocalorie of protein output
Seafood type Kilocalories of fossil fuel input per kilocalorie of protein output Marine Fisheries Shrimp 3-98 Salmon 18-52 20 Cod Ocean Aquaculture Salmon cage culture 50 Salmon ranching 7-12 Seaweed 1
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Aquaculture Advantages Disadvantages Highly efficient
High yield in small volume of water Increased yields through crossbreeding and genetic engineering Can reduce overharvesting of conventional fisheries Little use of fuel Profit not tired to price of oil High profits Large inputs of land, feed, and water needed Produces large and concentrated outputs of waste Destroys mangrove forests Increased grain production needed to feed some species Fish can be killed by pesticide runoff from nearby cropland Dense populations vulnerable to disease Tanks too contaminated to use after about 5 years Aquaculture
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Affects of projected Global Warming on growing crops and catching fish
Advantages Disadvantages Lower crop yields in some areas Decreased precipitation some areas Shorter growing seasons in some More unpredictable farming conditions Increased pest populations in warmer areas Loss of wetlands and fertile coastal land from rising sea levels Changes in distribution of fish supplies Affects of projected Global Warming on growing crops and catching fish Increased crop yields in some areas Increased precipitation in some dry areas Longer growing seasons in currently cool Less precipitation in some areas with too much precipitation Increased yields of warm-water fish Expanded growing area
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Kilograms of grain needed per kilogram of body weight
Producing More Meat Kilograms of grain needed per kilogram of body weight Beef cattle 7 Pigs 4 Chicken 2.2 Fish (catfish or carp) 2 Rangeland Pasture Efficiency Fig p. 298 Adaptations of rangeland plants Range condition and management Environmental consequences (Connections p. 299)
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Affects of Overgrazing
Ungrazed Grazed Recovery Metabolic reserve intact Metabolic reserve Metabolic reserve
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Ungrazed Overgrazed Death
Metabolic reserve Most of metabolic eaten
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After 15 years of overgrazing
After 10 years of protection
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Government Agricultural Policy
Artificially low Subsidies Elimination of price controls Food aid
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Solutions: Sustainable Agriculture
Low-input agriculture Organic farming See Fig p. 308 More benefits to the poor Increasing funding for research in sustainable techniques
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Solutions: Sustainable Agriculture
Use subsidies to reward farmers and ranchers that protect the soil, conserve water, reforest degraded land, protect and restore wetlands, conserve wildlife
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Components of more sustainable agriculture Increase Decrease
High-yield polyculture Organic fertilizers Biological pest control Integrated pest management Irrigation efficiency Perennial crops Crop rotation Use of more water- efficient crops Soil conservation Subsidies for more sustainable farming and fishing Soil erosion Soil salinization Aquifer depletion Overgrazing Overfishing Loss of biodiversity Loss of prime cropland Food waste Subsidies for unsustainable farming and fishing Population growth Poverty Components of more sustainable agriculture
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