1. BIOCHEMICAL
MOLECULES

2. Synthesis and Hydrolysis
The most important biological compounds are polymers
Polymers (poly = many)
The polymers are: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids (fats), and nucleic acids (DNA/RNA).
A polymer is made up of a chain of many monomers linked together

3. Synthesis and Hydrolysis
MONOMERS (mono = one)
Monomers are: amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, and nucleotides.
These are made (dehydration synthesis) or broken down (hydrolysis) over and over in living cells.

4. Large polymers are also called _______________
macromolecules
Large polymers are also called _______________
Macromolecules are formed by _________________, usually by reactions involving the loss of water = ________________________.
joining monomers
DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

5. DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS
____________ are joined together during dehydration synthesis.
MONOMERS
Chains of monomers are called _________
POLYMERS
Note: enzymes that speed up dehydration synthesis reactions are called _____________.
dehydrogenases

6. HYDROLYSIS HYDROLYSIS
The breaking of a polymer into units is ______________ (i.e. done by adding water to polymer).
Note: enzymes that speed up hydrolysis reactions are called __________
hydrolases

7. HYDROLYSIS ANIMATIONS
DEHYDRATION SYNTHSIS
and
HYDROLYSIS ANIMATIONS

8. Monomers (sub units)
Polymers

9. Polymers a) b) c) d)

10. Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) c) d)

11. Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) c) d)
Hydrolysis

12. Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) c) d)
Hydrolysis
H2O & Energy

13. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Hydrolysis Monomers a) b) c) d)
H2O & Energy

14. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Hydrolysis Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) c) d)
H2O & Energy

15. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Hydrolysis Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) c) d)
H2O & Energy

16. Dehydration Synthesis
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) c) d)
Dehydration Synthesis
Hydrolysis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) c) d)
H2O & Energy

17. Dehydration Synthesis
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) c) d)
H2O & Energy
Dehydration Synthesis
Hydrolysis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) c) d)
H2O & Energy

18. Dehydration Synthesis
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates
b) Proteins c) d)
H2O & Energy
Dehydration Synthesis
Hydrolysis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) c) d)
H2O & Energy

19. Dehydration Synthesis
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates
b) Proteins c) d)
H2O & Energy
Dehydration Synthesis
Hydrolysis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars
b) Amino Acids c) d)
H2O & Energy

20. Dehydration Synthesis
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates
b) Proteins
c) Lipids (fats) d)
H2O & Energy
Dehydration Synthesis
Hydrolysis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars
b) Amino Acids c) d)
H2O & Energy

21. Dehydration Synthesis
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates
b) Proteins
c) Lipids (fats) d)
H2O & Energy
Dehydration Synthesis
Hydrolysis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars
b) Amino Acids
c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d)
H2O & Energy

22. Dehydration Synthesis
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates
b) Proteins
c) Lipids (fats)
d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids)
H2O & Energy
Dehydration Synthesis
Hydrolysis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars
b) Amino Acids
c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d)
H2O & Energy

23. Dehydration Synthesis
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates
b) Proteins
c) Lipids (fats)
d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids)
H2O & Energy
Dehydration Synthesis
Hydrolysis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars
b) Amino Acids
c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol
d) Nucleotides
H2O & Energy

24. Dehydration Synthesis
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates
b) Proteins
c) Lipids (fats)
d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids)
H2O & Energy
These reactions require: 1.
Dehydration Synthesis
Hydrolysis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars
b) Amino Acids
c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol
d) Nucleotides
H2O & Energy

25. Dehydration Synthesis
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates
b) Proteins
c) Lipids (fats)
d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids)
H2O & Energy
These reactions require:
ATP energy
Dehydration Synthesis
Hydrolysis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars
b) Amino Acids
c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol
d) Nucleotides
H2O & Energy

26. Dehydration Synthesis
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates
b) Proteins
c) Lipids (fats)
d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids)
H2O & Energy
These reactions require:
ATP energy
Water
Dehydration Synthesis
Hydrolysis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars
b) Amino Acids
c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol
d) Nucleotides
H2O & Energy

27. Dehydration Synthesis
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates
b) Proteins
c) Lipids (fats)
d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids)
H2O & Energy
These reactions require:
ATP energy
Water
Enzymes
Dehydration Synthesis
Hydrolysis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars
b) Amino Acids
c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol
d) Nucleotides
H2O & Energy

28. CARBOHYDRATES Where does the name come from? (CH20)3 = C3H603
Hydrated Carbons: (CH20)n
Carbohydrates have the empirical formula of (CH20)n where n = the # of times the chain is repeated.
The carbons, hydrogens and oxygens are found in the ratio of 1:2:1 and are made up of a repeating chain of sugars.
Sugars are also known as saccarides.
Carbohydrates usually end in ‘ose’.
Can you think of any examples?
(CH20)3 =
C3H603
(CH20)6 =
C6H1206

29. CARBOHYDRATES: monosaccharides
The basic sugar molecule is GLUCOSE: C6 H12 O6.
Glucose has a ring structure.
Other monosaccharides include fructose, ribose, deoxyribose

30. Fructose Glucose 6 sided = HEXOSE 5 sided = PENTOSE C6 H12 O6
ISOMERS
C6 H12 O6
C6 H12 O6

31. CARBOHYDRATES: disaccharides
When two sugars bind together via DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS a disaccharide is formed.

32. CARBOHYDRATES: disaccharides glucose + glucose forms the sugar maltose
glucose + fructose forms the sugar sucrose
galactose + glucose forms the sugar lactose

33. CARBOHYDRATES: polysaccharides
When many sugars bind together via dehydration synthesis four types of polysaccharides may be formed:
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
Chitin

34. CARBOHYDRATES: polysaccharides CELLULOSE
The cell walls of plants are made of cellulose
They are long chains of glucose molecules with no side chains.
The linkage between the Carbon atoms of the sugars is different than starch and glycogen
No mammal can break this bond
5. This is why we cannot digest cellulose = FIBRE.

35. CARBOHYDRATES: polysaccharides STARCH
Plants store their energy as starch
Starch is made up of many glucose molecules linked together
Starch has few side chains

36. CARBOHYDRATES: polysaccharides GLYCOGEN
Animals store their energy (extra glucose) as glycogen
We store glycogen in our liver and muscles
Glycogen is made up of many glucose molecules linked together
Glycogen has many side chains

37. CARBOHYDRATES: polysaccharides CHITIN Made by animals and fungi
Long glucose chains linked with covalent bonds.
Very strong
Makes structures like exo-skeletons, fingernails, claws, and beaks

39. MAIN FUNCTIONS OF CARBS
Energy: when the bonds between Carbon atoms are broken, the energy released can be used by cells.
Carbohydrates are the primary energy molecules for all life.
2. Structural: Cellulose is the major structural compound in plants (is used in the cell wall).

40. LIPIDS Lipids are made up of the elements C,H,O but in no set ratio.
Lipids are large molecules that are insoluble in water.

41. Synthesis of a FAT animation: http://www2.nl.edu/jste/lipids.htm

42. Neutral Fats: Triglycerides
Composed of 3 fatty acids bonded to 1 glycerol.
Fatty acids contain a long chain of Carbons with an acid end.
Glycerol is a small 3 Carbon chain with 3 alcohol (OH) groups
These two molecules bind together via dehydration synthesis

43. There are 2 Types of Triglycerides
1. Saturated fats:
There are no double bonds in the carbon chains of the fatty acids.
The carbons are filled with hydrogens.
Unhealthy.
They mostly come from animals.
Become solid at room temperature.
Examples: lard, butter, animal fats…

45. There are 2 Types of Triglycerides
2. Unsaturated fats:
There are one (monounsaturated) or more double bonds (polyunsaturated).
Mostly come from plants.
They are liquid at room temperature.
Healthy
Examples: olive oil, corn oil, palm oil…

48. Phospholipids
Are used to make up the two layered cell membrane of all cells.
In phospholipids, the third fatty acid group of a triglyceride is replaced by an inorganic phosphate group (PO43-).

49. Phospholipids This creates a polar end:
The phosphate end is water soluble (hydrophilic)
The fatty acid is not water soluble (hydrophobic)

52. hydrophilic
hydrophobic

53. Steroids
Steroids structurally look very different from lipids, but are also water insoluble.
They are made up of 4 Carbon ring molecules fused together.
Examples: testosterone, estrogen, cholesterol, and vitamin D.
Used as sex hormones

54. Steroids

55. Uses of Lipids
Long term storage for energy (more efficient spacewise than glycogen or starch).
Insulation and protection in animals
Making some hormones (steroids)
Structure of cell membranes Without lipids, we would have no cells.

56. Essential Omega-3 Fats Found in fish and leafy vegetables
Other foods are now offering omega-3’s (eggs, cereals, margarine…)
Help to reduce cancer
Helps with vision
Helps us think better

57. Trans Fats
Scientific evidence has shown that dietary saturated and trans fats can increase your risk of developing heart disease.

58. Proteins
Proteins are made up of the elements C,H,O, and N (but in no set ratio).
Proteins are chains of Amino Acids (usually 75 or more) that bond together via dehydration synthesis.
40% of the average human body is made up of protein.

59. Proteins The building blocks of Proteins are amino acids.
There are three parts to an amino acids:
Amino Group (NH2 or NH3+) acts as a base (accepts H+)
Carboxyl Group (COOH or COO-) acts as an acid (donates H+)
R Group: there are different possible R groups

60. 20 Different
Amino Acids

61. Proteins Amino acids bond together via dehydration synthesis.
The amino acids bind together with a peptide bond.
The PEPTIDE bond is formed between C and N and one water is lost (dehydration synthesis).

62. Proteins
When the original two amino acids form the beginning of the chain (with one peptide bond) it is called a DIPEPTIDE.

63. Proteins
Then the chain grows to become a TRIPEPTIDE.

64. Proteins
Ultimately you end up with a POLYPEPTIDE (which can have anywhere between 30 and 30,000 amino acids).
Another name for a polypeptide is protein.

65. Proteins
Every protein is different because the ORDER of amino acids is different.
The chains come together differently due to the order of the different R groups and how they bond together.
This structural difference also makes the polypeptides (proteins) functionally different.

66. Levels of Protein Structure
primary structure: 1
This is the first level of how proteins are formed.
It is simply the order of amino acids joined together with peptide bonds.
It is the amino acid sequence that determines the nature and chemistry of the protein.
If you change the order of amino acids, the protein may not be able to do its job.

67. Levels of Protein Structure
secondary structure: 2
This is the second step in the formation of a protein.
When a peptide bond is formed, a double bonded oxygen is left over, which is partially negative (the carboxyl group: COO-).
It is attracted to the positive NH3+ amino group from other amino acids in the chain.
This attraction forms a HYDROGEN BOND.
This causes the chain to twist into either a spiral called an alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet.

69. Levels of Protein Structure
tertiary structure: 3
The next interactions take place between the R groups.
Some R groups are reactive and will interact with other reactive R groups in the chain. These are the amino acids that are either charged or that have a sulphur atom.
The interactions ( + and – attractions and S-S bridges) will fold the molecule over into a highly specific 3-dimensional shape.
It is the 3-D shape that will determine the protein’s job or role in the body.

70. Charged amino acids

71. Amino Acids with Sulphur groups

72. Neutral Amino Acids

73. Levels of Protein Structure
quaternary structure: 4
The last level in protein formation is not seen in all proteins.
However, some proteins are actually 2 or more molecules joined to form a functional protein. They are held together with an ionic bond.
Two examples:
Insulin has 2 subunits
Hemoglobin has 4 subunits.

74. hemoglobin
insulin

75. The Whole Process Peptide Bonds Hydrogen Bonds
Interactions between R groups
Ionic Bonds

76. Denaturation
The final shape of a protein (its tertiary or quaternary structure) is very specific and enables it to do its job/function.
Any change in a proteins’ shape will affect its function.
Denaturation is when a protein's tertiary structure is lost.
This happens when the bonds between the R groups are broken.
When a protein is denatured, the protein can’t do its job and becomes useless.

77. Denaturation Temperature:
How can this happen? There are three common ways:
Temperature:
High temperatures affect the weak Hydrogen bonds and can distort or break them, thus changing the structural shape.
A slight increase in temperature an cause a reversible change (ie: fever) A high temperature increase can cause an irreversible change (ie: cooking an egg).

78. Denaturation 2. Chemicals:
How can this happen? There are three common ways:
2. Chemicals:
Heavy metals such as lead and mercury are large atoms that are attracted the R groups of amino acids.
They bond to the R group and distort the protein’s shape.
This is usually irreversible (they usually don’t want to ‘let go’).

79. Denaturation pH: How can this happen? There are three common ways:
As some of the R groups are acids and some are bases, every protein (enzyme) has a preferred pH.
Any change in pH causes a change in the acid-base R group interactions and this will change the shape of the protein.

80. Functions of Proteins
1. Structural: proteins help make up all structures in living things
Actin & Myosin: muscle proteins
Collagen: bones, teeth, cartilage, tendon, ligament, blood vessels, skin matrix
Keratin: nails, hair, horns, feathers

81. Functions of Proteins
2. Functional: other proteins help us to keep our bodies functioning properly and to digest our food.
Enzymes: are proteins that are catalysts which speed up reactions and control all cell activities.
Hemoglobin

82. Functions of Proteins
Food Source: once we have used up all of our carbohydrates and fats, proteins will be used for energy.
Proteins are worth the least amount of energy per gram.
Anorexia and Bolimia

83. Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are acidic molecules that are found in the nucleus of cells.
There are two types, both of which are very LARGE.
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid
RNA: Ribonucleic Acid

84. Nucleic Acids
All nucleic acids are composed of units called NUCLEOTIDES, which are composed of three sub-molecules:
1. Pentose Sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)
2. Phosphate
3. Nitrogen Base (purine or pyrimidine)

85. Nucleic Acids
They are formed by joining their subunits together via dehydration synthesis (nucleotide + nucleotide … = nucleic acid).
This is quite a complex process to which we will devote an entire unit to.

86. nitrogen base: purines
Nucleic Acids
nitrogen base: purines
Adenine and Guanine
Have two rings
Found in both DNA and RNA
Memory Trick: It’s Got 2 Be GAP

87. nitrogen base: pyrimidines
Nucleic Acids
nitrogen base: pyrimidines
Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil
Have only one ring
Cytosine is in both DNA and RNA
Thymine is in DNA only
Uracil is in RNA only
Uracil
Memory Trick: CUT the Pyramid

88. Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Structure of DNA:
DNA is composed of two complimentary strands of nucleotides.
The two strands are joined by hydrogen bonds which form between complimentary nitrogen bases:
Adenine with Thymine (A-T or T-A)
They join with 2 hydrogen bonds
Cytosine with Guanine (C-G or G-C)
They join with 3 hydrogen bonds

89. Deoxyribonucleic Acid

90. Deoxyribonucleic Acid
When DNA is first made, it is just two linear strands of nucleotides joined together.
Due to internal bonding, the DNA molecule then forms into a double helix (twisted ladder).

91. Functions of DNA
Directs and controls all cell activities by making all of the proteins and enzymes
b) Contains all of the genetic information necessary to make one complete organism of very exact specifications

92. Ribonucleic Acid RNA is made by DNA.
It is not confined to the nucleus, it moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm of the cell.
It has Ribose sugar instead of Deoxyribose.
It has no thymines, and uses URACIL’s instead.
It is single stranded and therefore, no helix is formed.
There are 3 types of RNA.
The function of RNA is to assist DNA in making proteins.

94. A Comparison

95. Found in the nucleus only Found in the nucleus and the cytoplasm
DNA
RNA
Nitrogen bases: A,T,G,C
Nitrogen bases: A, U, G, C
Sugar: deoxyribose
Sugar: ribose
Double stranded
Single stranded
1 type
3 types: a) mRNA – messenger
b) tRNA – transfer
c) rRNA – ribosomal
Found in the nucleus only
Found in the nucleus and the cytoplasm
Forms a double helix
No helix
DNA makes DNA
DNA makes RNA
Very big molecule
Much smaller molecule

96. Adenosine Triphosphate
ATP is also thought of as a nucleic acid as it has the same structure as a nucleotide. The only difference is that it has THREE phosphate groups instead of one.
This is the energy source for the body.

97. Adenosine Triphosphate Celllular Respiration
Our mitochondria turn the energy of glucose into ATP.
Why is it a good molecule to store energy? It takes a lot of energy to put two phosphate molecules together (both –’ve). So when you break that bond, a lot of energy is released.
C6H12O6 + 6O > 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy (heat and ATP)