1. An Introduction to Rhetoric
Adapted from Everyday Use, Hephziba Roskelly, 2005
and The Language of Composition, Renee H. Shea, 2008

2. What is rhetoric?
According to Aristotle ( BC), rhetoric is “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.”
Using language effectively to persuade, inform, educate, or entertain
It refers to two things:
The art of analyzing all the language choices that writer, speaker, reader, listener might make in a given situation so that the text becomes meaningful, purposeful, and effective.
The specific features of text, written or spoken, that cause them to be meaningful, purposeful, and effective for readers or listeners in a given situation.

3. What does being skilled at rhetoric mean?
Being able to make good speeches and write good papers, but also having the ability to read other people’s compositions and listen to their spoken words with a discerning eye and critical ear.
Reading not only to understand the main and supporting points of what someone else writes, but also to analyze the decisions the author makes as he/she works to accomplish a purpose for a specific audience.

4. What does being skilled at rhetoric mean?
Being able to plan and write compositions, not just write them.
Being able to examine a situation and determine what has already been said and written, what remains unresolved, and what you might say or write to continue the conversation or persuade readers to take action.

5. Lou Gehrig’s Farewell Address

6. Why is this an effective speech?
Context: the occasion or the time and place it was written or spoken
Purpose-goal that the speaker or writer wants to achieve
win agreement
persuade us to take action
evoke sympathy, make someone laugh
inform, provoke, celebrate, repudiate
put forth a proposal, secure support
bring about a favorable decision

7. Why is this an effective speech?
Thesis, claim, assertion, argument: main idea
Subject: Writers or speakers evaluate what they already know, what others have said, and what kind of evidence develops their position
Speaker (Persona): the character the speaker creates when s/he writes or speaks-depending on the context, purpose, subject, and audience
Audience: Each audience requires the speaker/writer to use different information to shape the argument effectively.
Lou Gehrig’s understanding of how subject, speaker, and audience interact determines his speech.

8. Aristotelian triangle
Aristotle described the interaction among subject, speaker, and audience (or subject, writer, and reader), as well as how this interaction determines the structure and language of the argument (a text or image that establishes a position).

9. The Rhetorical Triangle
Speaker (Persona)
Subject
Audience

10. Key #1: Understanding Persona
If you understand persona, you are able to do two things:
Speak or write so the audience perceives you as a distinct character, usually one who is educated, trustworthy, and well-intentioned.
Make inferences or judgments about the character and personality of another speaker or writer, and analyze how that writer appeals to the audience, how he invites the audience to interact with material, and how he wants them to act afterwards.

11. Key #1: Understanding Persona
Writers usually want the persona they develop and the voice they use to be genuine and reflect who they really are.
Sometimes they use another voice for comic effect, or to underscore the seriousness of a situation.
Writers use their voices to affect a reader’s understanding and belief.

12. Key #2: Understanding Appeals to the Audience
Ethos (character): Demonstrates credibility of speaker; shows that he/she knows important and relevant information about the topic at hand, and is a good person with the audience’s best interests in mind. Emphasizes shared values between the speaker and the audience.
Logos (reason): Offers clear, rational ideas and develops them with appropriate reasoning, examples, or details.
Pathos (emotion): Draws on the emotions and interests of the audience so they will be sympathetic to his/her central ideas and arguments.

13. Key #3: Understanding Subject Matter \and its Treatment
What you decide to include in a composition is innately connected to:
why you are writing,
whom you are writing to, and
what kind of text you are composing.

14. 4 essential concepts:
Any question or issue that might become the subject of a text must have at least two paths of interpretation, analysis, or argument.
Effective material is generated by capitalizing on what the audience already knows, making them curious to know more, and then satisfying that curiosity by building on what they already know.
The basic move of all rhetorical texts is “claim-plus- support.”
Central responsibility is to generate substantial material to support the points you are making.

15. Revised Rhetorical Triangle
Speaker (Persona)
Context
Purpose
put forth a proposal, secure support, or bring about a favorable decision?
Audience
Subject

16. Another Rhetorical Framework
S – Subject
O – Occasion
A – Audience
P – Purpose
S – Style
T- Tone

17. Classical Model of Arrangement
A five-part structure for an essay or speech:
Introduction: Piques the reader’s interest, challenges them, or otherwise catches there attention; often where the writer establishes ethos.
Narration: Provides factual information and background material on the subject at hand; establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing; often appeals to pathos.

18. Classical Model, cont.
Confirmation: Usually the major part of the text; includes the proof needed to make the writer’s case; most specific and concrete detail; appeals to logos.
Refutation: Addresses the counterargument; a bridge between the writer’s proof and the conclusion; appeal is largely to logos.
Conclusion: Brings essay to a close; usually appeals to pathos, reminds audience of ethos established earlier; brings all the writer’s ideas together and answers the question “so what?”

19. Patterns of Development: Arrangement According to Purpose
Narration: Storytelling or recounting a series of events; chronological; story supports a thesis.
Description: Emphasizes the senses by painting a picture; used to establish mood or atmosphere.
Process Analysis: Explains how something works, how to do something, or how something was done; key is clarity.

20. Patterns of Development, cont.
Exemplification: Provides a series of examples to make argument clearer and more persuasive; induction: a series of specific examples leads to a general conclusion.
Comparison & Contrast: Juxtaposes two things to highlight similarities and differences; used to analyze information carefully, revealing insights into the nature of the information being analyzed.
Classification & Division: Sorts material or ideas into major categories by answering the question “What goes together and why?”; makes connections between things that may seem unrelated.

21. Patterns of Development, cont.
Definition: Lays the foundation to establish common ground or identifies areas of conflict; clarify terms.
Cause & Effect: Analyzes the causes that lead to a certain effect, or the effects that result from a cause; important to carefully trace the cause & effect, and to recognize all possible contributing causes.

22. Conducting a Rhetorical Analysis

23. Goal of Rhetorical Analysis
Break down the text as a whole into the sum of its parts
What is the writer trying to achieve?
What strategies is he using to meet this goal?
Are these strategies effective?

24. Questions to Ask While Reading Critically
What is the general subject of the text?
Does it have meaning to you?
Is it controversial?
Does it bring up other associations in your mind?
What is the thesis?
How does the thesis comment on the subject?

25. Questions to Ask While Reading Critically
What is the purpose of the argument?
What is the author hoping to achieve?
What is the tone of the text?
How is that tone developed throughout the piece?
Is the tone effective in achieving the purpose?
Who is the audience for this argument?

26. Three Appeals Does the author consider the Rhetorical Triangle?
If not, where does the author fail in this regard
If so, what are the strongest appeals and how do they affect the success of the piece?

27. Three Appeals Appeals to Ethos Does the author establish credibility?
Does the author seem trustworthy?
How does the author handle the subject and/or the audience?

28. Three Appeals Appeals to Pathos
Does the author make and emotional appeal?
What techniques does he use to reach the audience emotionally?
Is the appeal to emotion primary or secondary to the author’s purpose?

29. Three Appeals Appeals to Logos
What facts (if any) are used in the argument?
What facts are left out of the argument that might affect the piece?
Does the argument rely on logic?

30. Claims What claims are made in the argument?
What techniques or devices does the author use to establish these claims?
What issues are raised in the piece?

31. Considering the Context
What are the contexts considered in the piece:
Social
Political
Historical
Cultural
Whose interests do these contexts serve?
Who gains or loses as a result of the argument?

32. Shape of the Argument
How does the shape or arrangement of the piece affect the argument?
Does the argument go from specific to general?
Inductive reasoning – makes a claim based on looking at a number of specific examples. Small to big.
Does the argument go from general to specific?
Deductive reasoning – makes a claim based on a general principal then applying to a specific case.
Are there headings or divisions in the writing?

33. How does the Style of the Argument Work to Persuade an Audience?
How would you characterize the overall style of the piece?
Formal/informal
Serious/light-hearted
Slanted/objective etc.
Is there anything unique or interesting about the style
that is worth discussing?

34. How does the Language of the Argument Work to Persuade an Audience?
Consider the diction
How does the word choice relate to the purpose?
How does the sentence structure or syntax affect the piece? Do sentences stand out that might be significant?

35. Making Connections
No matter what items you choose to comment on during a rhetorical analysis, you must make connections to your thesis or to the author’s purpose.
Don’t just make observations about a text, you must tie it to something important about the bigger picture of the piece as a whole!