1. FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Bourhan Tachtouch
Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
KFUPM, Dhahran 31261

2. FIRE PROTECTION IN BUILDINGS
Buildings are designed to minimize heating, cooling and lightening to reduce energy consumption
They can be designed to reduce the size of fire-fighting systems and retard the spread of smoke and fire.

3. Fire has three elements:
Fuel
High temperature
Oxygen
* Building fire will be extinguished if deprived of any of these elements
* Architects and engineers all participate in the control of these elements that cause fire in buildings

4. Products of combustion
High temperature
CO2

5. Many of the elements of building fire safety, but not all of them, are covered by building codes
These codes prescribe the minimum requirement or acceptable protection
Designers can go further than the codes requires to enhance fire safety

6. Codes and standards
Code: a mandatory set of formalized design requirement which have been adopted by a government body and that are enforced by law
A code may be a standard which has been adopted by a certain government body. Such as Uniform Building Code (UBC)

7. Standard
A voluntary set of formalized design requirements which have been prepared by professional group associated with building design and that are not mandatory
These standards like ASHRAE standards
The codes and standards are either perspective-based or performance based.

8. Perspective-based
Typically prescribe design strategies that are passive means of limiting the spread of fire and protecting life (e.g. construction material, interior finishes, maximum distance to exist, etc.)
Codes allow some relaxing of such prescription when active fire-suppression systems ( such as sprinklers) are designed into building

9. Performance-based
Describes how the building will perform under fire ( using computer simulation)

10. Common building fire safety codes and standards
Uniform building code (UBC)
National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA)
Local Safety Enforced Requirements

11. Who Is Responsible?
Architects and engineers are all responsible and should participate in the control of the fire elements in buildings
Considerations of fire protection take part both in the architectural and engineering design phases of buildings

12. Fire –proofing structure
Architectural
Egress , fire barriers
Structural
Fire –proofing structure
Mechanical
Sprinklers, standpipes & hose
systems, smoke control

13. Fire resisting materials
Electrical
Fire alarm systems
Interior design
Fire resisting materials

14. Fire Hazards Three categories: Light hazard: normal buildings
Ordinary hazard: factories, industrial areas
Extra hazard: refineries, gas stations

15. Fire thermal products (flame and heat ) are responsible for about 25% of deaths in building fires
Fire non-thermal products ( smoke and gases) are responsible for about 75% of deaths in building fires.
Gases ( CO2, CO, H2S, SO2, NH3, …) are either toxic or displaces oxygen resulting in insufficient oxygen which leads to health problems

16. Normal concentration of oxygen in air is about 21%
If it is reduced to:
15% - diminished muscular skill
14-10%- faulty judgment and rapid fatigue
10-6% - collapse but revival is possible with increased oxygen supply

17. Objectives of fire safety
Protection of life
Protection of property
1. The building contents
2. The building itself
Continuity of operation
Protection of adjacent buildings

18. Maximum travel distance limits are determined by codes
Allowable travel distances to exit are increased when automatic fire suppression systems ( sprinklers for example) are used
As a designer you should be aware that at 30% of building fire deaths result from fire cutting off the path to exit

19. Example A multi story office building is 30 m wide by 80 m long
What capacity ( exit door and stairs ) is required per floor?

20. Solution Gross floor area = 30x80=2400 m2
Occupant load = 9.3 m2/person
Building population per floor=2400/ =258 persons
Width of exit doors (to stairs)=258x0.2
=51.6 in = 131 cm
Two cm clear door into each
180 cm > the minimum of 131 cm. then it is OK

21. Width of stairs Width of stairs= 258x0.3=77.4 in=197 cm
Two 120 cm each
240 cm > the minimum of 197 cm then it is ok

22. PROTECTION FOR PROPERTY
EASY ACCESS TO BUILDING FOR FIRE FIGHTING
INTERNAL FIRE SUPRESSION SYSTEMS (EXTINGUISHERS, SPRINKLERS, HOSES AND STAND PIPES)
ADEQUATE WATER TO FIGHT THE FIRE ( elevated tanks on building)

23. Exposure Protection
It is common in areas where highly flammable surroundings pose a serious threat of fires originating outside a building

24. NON –FLAMMABLE BUILDING MATRIAL

25. COMPARTMENTATION
Has become more important as buildings have become lightweight structures incorporating decreased fire resistance and open floor areas that encourage the spread of fire

26. Codes established the maximum floor areas permissible for variance constructions and occupancies
Many codes require fire stopping around 93 m2 of suspended ceiling area and 186 m2 for attic floor area

27. Structural protection
Allows the building to continue to stand during a fire and enables it to be salvaged rather than demolished after fire

28. Continuity of Operation
For building functions, it is desirable to minimize the disruption of operation that fire will cause
To achieve this the following can be considered:

29. Fire /alarm suppression systems
HVAC systems to evacuate a building of smoke after the fire put out
Provision for water proofing floors in sprinkler-served buildings (sloping water proof floors with drains)

30. Protection of adjacent buildings
Setbacks
Zoning
Access for firefighting personnel and equipment

31. Smoke management
It kills more people in building fires than heat or structural collapse
Design for smoke management , fire resistance and fire suppression

32. Objectives Reduce deaths Reduce property damage
Provide continuity of operation with minimal smoke interference

33. Factors in smoke management
Heat
Buoyancy
Air velocity
Building location
High and low buildings

34. Confinement
The most passive design response to smoke is to try to confine it to the fire area itself
Refuges ( exclude smoke from specially protected areas)

35. Dilution
At early stages of fire, the dilution of smoke with outside air may help in evacuation process

36. Exhaust
Using air velocity and pressure to control smoke

37. Advantages of Exhaust They can move toxic gases from refuge areas
They help fire fighters by improving th air quality in the vicinity of the fire itself
They can help control the direction that a fire takes by creating air currents that a fire will follow

38. They remove unburned but combustible gases from a fire before gases can cause a back draft or flashover (smoke explosion)
They keep smoke out of refuge areas even when doors are temporarily open
With them, the tall-building stack effect, complicated by buoyancy and wind is likely to overcome smoke management system
They can help to remove smoke after fire

39. HVAC systems, sprinklers and smoke
Two systems within the building must be closely coordinated with smoke exhaust systems:
1. HVAC
2.Fire detection/suppression (sprinklers) system

40. HVAC system
As the fire detection system activates the smoke exhaust fans it must also override the conventional HVAC system operation
If the HVAC system is VAV, then all supply control valves (dampers) must be moved to their full open position

41. Sprinklers system
It can hamper the functioning of smoke exhaust systems, both by creating a curtain of water that inhibits the movement of smoke and by cooling the smoke, thus reducing its buoyancy
as less buoyant smoke descends, visibility decreases and the danger of smoke inhalation increases

42. Automatic ventilating hatches
Heat and smoke venting devices (no fans)
For smaller buildings

43. Fire suppression mediums
Water :
Is the most popular medium for building fire suppression
Is readily available
Is relatively low in cost!!!!
When changed into vapor , it absorbs 2500 kJ/kg at atmospheric pressure and its volume increases to 1700 times which helps in pushing away the oxygen needed by the fire

44. Disadvantages Water damages building contents It conducts electricity
Many flammable oils will float on water surface since the specific gravity of these fluid is less than one
Steam can harm fire fighters

45. Carbon dioxide CO2
Used in applications where rapid fire suppression is required and where water might cause damage such as computer equipment rooms , electronic installations, libraries, museums, and record storage rooms
Smother fire by displacing oxygen

46. Used in tightly confined spaces that are free of people and animals ( e.g. display cases, mechanical or electrical chases, ….)
Stored as a liquid under great pressure, when released as gas , it provides cooling as well as smothering action
CO2 does not leave residue after its use, non-toxic and usually causes no damage to electrical equipment

47. Disadvantages
It requires concentration of 21% to 62% of that of air ( 9% concentration results in loss of consciousness), not good environment for fire fighters or trapped persons
It should be of low concentration with early alarm evacuation before use
After CO2 dissipation re-ignition is possible

48. Foams They are masses of gas filled bubbles
Light, therefore, float on surfaces of burning liquids, that means smothering and cooling effect
Highly expandable and fast spreading. Foam expansion into steam reduces oxygen content to less than that required for combustion (7%), therefore suppressing fire.

49. A cooling effect is also achieved by the action of breaking bubbles
Effective in flammable liquid fires (popular in airplane hangers)

50. Halogenated Agents
Halogenated hydrocarbons, known as ‘halons’ are stored as liquid with one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by halogen atoms
Halon 1301 is the most widely used agent effective against classes A,B,C fires common on portable fire extinguishers
The number indicates: 1- carbon atom, 3 –fluorine atoms, o- chlorine atom, 1 –bromine atom

51. Class A: Interior wall and ceiling finish, flame spread 0-26, smoke developed
Class B: Interior wall and ceiling finish, flame spread 26-75, smoke developed
Class C: Interior wall and ceiling finish, flame spread , smoke developed

52. Halons primarily inhibit flames chemically rather physically (exact process unknown)
Light weight and space saving relative to other mediums
It extinguishes fire little harm to contents, popular choice where a clean fire suppression agent is required and people are present and content with high value such as in commercial aircraft, computer rooms, museums , libraries, telephone exchanges and kitchens

53. Halons does not wet or leave residue after use
Under normal conditions, Halon is 5 times heavier than air
Not good for burning metals or self-oxidizing materials such as gunpowder
More expensive than CO2 or water

54. Halon Operation and Maintenance
Used in application where rapid fire suppression is required and where water might cause damage such as in computer equipment rooms , electronic installations libraries, museums and record storage rooms
Typically , the hazard area is protected with central Halon storage tank connected to a fixed pipe distribution network to the protected area

55. Should be of low concentration less than 10% , doors should be auto close
HVAC and air distribution systems should be shutdown when the system is discharging to prevent the leakage for Halon 1301 from the protected area and therefore insure effective fire suppression
Greater than 10% Halon concentration means potential serious toxic effects (Halon is CFC gas)

56. A Halon 1301 fire suppression system should be installed , inspected and maintained by trained or certified contractor
Should be checked for nozzles placement and blockage
Should be checked for proper operation and functioning of the automatic detection and control systems

57. Fire suppression systems
Portable fire extinguishers:
Classified according to the type of fire or hazard for which they are designed
Designed to suppress small fires (typical maximum discharge time span is 8 to 90 seconds)
Many contain water, water mixture, dry chemicals , and/or gases
Travel distance and time is a main factor in fire extinguishers placement

58. Classes of fire extinguishers
Class A
For use on ordinary combustibles such as wood , trash, paper and textile
Content: water, water-based agents, or multipurpose chemical agents

59. Class B
For use on flammable liquids or liquid petroleum products fires such as flammable gases , greases, paints, solvents, plastics and rubbers
Contents: requires smothering or flame –interrupting chemicals (blanketing) such CO2, sodium, and potassium bicarbonate base dry chemicals (Purple K, with purple color powder), foam , or halogenated agents

60. Class C
Used for electrical fires or near energized electrical equipment (over-heated fuse boxes and other electrical sources and wiring
Classification refers to sources of ignition rather than to fuel as in classes A and B
Contents: non-electrically conducting extinguishing agents such as CO2 , sodium, and potsium bicarbonate base dry chemicals or halogenated agents

61. Class D
Used in combustible metals fires such as magnesium, titanium, sodium-potassium alloys, etc.
Contents: dry powders such as graphite or sodium chloride vase

62. Classes A, B and C are: Multi-purpose dry chemicals extinguishers
Content: ammonium phosphate (with yellow color powder)
Not ideal for electrical fires because it leaves hard residue

63. Fire Extinguishers Operation and Maintenance
Should be placed uniformly in visible and easily reached locations along normal paths of protected egress away from potential fire hazards
Extinguishers suitable for more than one class of fire should be used in the same facility
Should not be carried more than 22.5 m for classes A, C and D hazard and no more than 15 m for class B hazard and at least 15 cm from the floor for cleaning and to avoid obstruction

64. Should be clearly marked for the intended use
Inspect all extinguishers when installed and thereafter on regular bases 9monthly or more frequent)
Should be checked frequently for pressure, charge , weight, operation and cleanness
Recharge all rechargeable type extinguishers using the agents specified on their nameplates

65. Check frequently for their proper location, access and visibility
Check for corrosion and dents
Check for leakage or clogged nozzles
Locate indoors or provide shading avoiding areas with high temperature (> 49oC, 120 F)
Record date of inspection/recharging using maintenance tags

66. Should be trained on by occupants
Hydrostatic testing , a pressurization of the extinguisher to test cylinder structure, is required every 5-12 years depending on the type of extinguisher, cylinder or shell
Hydrostatic testing must be performed by component personnel who have suitable testing equipment and facilities (normally performed by outside contractors)

67. Standpipes and hoses Essential in tall and industrial buildings
Water is supplied at a minimum pressure of 448 k Pa (65 psi) at the topmost outlet from:
Public water system with adequate water pressure
Overhead gravity or pressure tank
Automatic or manually controlled up feed fire water pumps

68. Code requirements for number of standpipes is based on:
Usually located at or near fire stairs so that hoses will be able to reach every part of the building
Code requirements for number of standpipes is based on:
30.5 m (100 ft) length of extended unlined fire hoses
22.9 m (75 ft) length of lined hoses

69. In theoretical situations, the direct route to fire source can be used, therefore , the required standpipe hose length will be sufficient
However, in real situations , the fire fighters carry equipment and hoses filled with water and approaching fire along smoke –filled corridors at extreme heat, indirect route will require more hose length than the theoretical one

70. Types of Standpipes
Standpipes and hoses with a separate water reserve, up feeding pumping or fire department connection are listed in three classes and five types.
The major differences are whether the system is for first aid or full scale fire fighting or whether the systems has an automatic water supply or manual one

71. Classes Class I systems:
For full scale fire fighting and required for sprinklered and un-sprinklered buildings three stories high as well as in Malls

72. Class II For first air fighting before the fire trucks arrive.
They use 38 mm hose connection
The difficulty for untrained personnel to handle 100 ft hose with 378 liter/min flow

73. Class III Combine the characteristics of Class I and Class II
They serve for both first aid and full scale fighting

74. Combine systems are either class I or III standpipe systems that also supply water to sprinkler system

75. Combination standpipe system
Joint use standpipe system for both fire and sprinkler heads can be used. Adequate water supply and pressure must be available (min 6 in standpipe riser). Separate fire hose and sprinklers valves allow independent control at each floor level

76. Standpipe system types
Dry standpipes
Water pipes 9normal;ly empty) used to connect hoses by fire fighters to ground level fire hydrants. Located at or near fire stairways or outside of buildings
Wet standpipes
Wet standpipes are filled with water under pressure at all times . Can be used by trained building occupants in each floor of the building

77. Standpipe system types
Automatic wet systems- the pipes are filled with water and connected to water supply capable of automatically meeting the fire fighting demand
Automatic dry systems- the pipes are filled with pressurized air and are connected to water supply capable of automatically meeting the fire fighting demands

78. Semiautomatic dry system-the pipes are filled with air and connected to the water supply
Manual dry systems-the pipes are filled with air and there is no connection to a water supply other than that provided by the fire department
Manual wet system- the pipes are filled with water with a connection to domestic source

79. Standpipes Operation and Maintenance
Inspect al fire hoses on regular basis (monthly) and schedule them for replacement at ten –year interval
Perform annual pressure test of hydrants and hoses
Install isolation valves on standpipe systems to allow work on a branch line without putting the entire system out of service

80. May install check valves on the standpipe systems at coming water source to prevent water from escaping the system when pressure drops or when fire department connections are not in use
Provide drainages system. Locate drain valves at the lowest possible point downstraem of the isolation valves

81. Sprinkler System Design Impacts
Unlike the fire hose, a sprinkler is likely to be already positioned above the point of a fire and is capable of being deployed in seconds , not minutes
They are relied on as a proven automatic fire suppressers

82. Automatic sprinkler systems consists of horizontal pattern of pipes placed just below or within the ceiling of the industrial buildings, warehouses, stores, theaters ,, etc in which a fire hazard require their use

83. Alarm Gong
An alarm gong mounted on the outside of the building warns of water flow through the alarm valve on the actuating of sprinkler head
This warning gives the building personnel an opportunity to make additional fire arrangement that can minimize loss and speed the termination of the fire
In this way the sprinklers can be turned off to prevent excess water damage to building content after the fire is out

84. Siamese Connections
Siamese connections (fire department connections) are connections used by local fire department to pump water into the standpipe system

85. Siamese Operation and Maintenance
Must be readily visible and accessible to the fire department without obstruction by equipment, structure or vegetation
Should have its fire department connections located on street side of the building

86. Should be identified with proper signs indicating their parts of the building served by them and their type ( i.e. standpipe , sprinkler, or combination)
Should be hydrostatically tested at time of installation
Should be inspected regularly for proper operation
Should be checked for threads freedom of movement , cleanness and readiness for use
Hoses and hydrants should be checked regularly for pressure and proper working conditions

87. Provision for Drainage
Sprinklers can release a huge amount of water
It has to be removed

88. Water supply Elevated water tank in the building
They supply a constant pressure on the distribution lines, store sufficient water to balance supply and demand, prevent excessive starting and stopping of the pump and provide a dependable fire reservoir

89. When gravity tanks are used with sprinkler systems they should provide enough water to operate 25% of the sprinkler heads for 20 minutes
Disadvantages:
Unsightliness
Freezing
Heavy weight

90. Valves
They are required to allow the sprinkler to be shut off for maintenance , system modification or replacement of all sprinkler heads that have operated after a fire
Indicating valves of various types (open or closed) usually open

91. Sprinkler Construction orientation and Rating
The common sprinkler head contains water by a plug or cap that is held tightly against an orifice by levers or other restraining devices
Common types of sprinkler heads are upright (SSU), pendant (SSP), or sidewall types
Upright heads sit on top of the exposed supply piping
Pendant heads hang below piping, which can be concealed above suspended ceilings

92. Flow control sprinklers close automatically once temperatures at the ceiling are sufficiently reduced

93. Sprinkler Spacing and Hazard
The spacing of sprinkler heads and the sizing of their spaces are complex and designed by professionals
The guidelines for preliminary sprinkler location are:
Degree of hazard faced by the occupant (tables 24-8 and 24-9)
Maximum floor area to be protected by any sprinkler system
Piping can be hydraulically designed

94. A complication factor that is the expectation that only a small percentage of the sprinklers will actually open
A detailed sizing procedure would consider both the available pressure at the highest sprinkler and the expected flow rate ( gpm)
The sprinkler actual performance is :

95. Q- flow rate, gpm
K- K factor , table 2-47
P- pressure , psi
In SI units:
Q- L/min
K-K factor(14.3 x I-P K factor)
P- pressure in bars

96. Sprinklers are designed for maximum working pressure 175 psi and 500-750 gpm.
Light hazard systems need a minimum residual pressure of 15 psi and gpm
Ordinary hazard systems need a minimum residual pressure of 20 psi and gpm

97. Residential sprinklers
It a fast response device with a tested ability to enhance survivability in the room of fire origin and it is listed for protection of dwellings units
They have the ability of delivering water to the walls and high enough on the walls to prevent the fire from getting above the sprinkler

98. Quick response sprinklers
Fast response are required in all light hazard occupancies. Like hotels, motels and offices.

99. Sprinklers Overview
Usually required in large basement areas, windowless buildings, hospitals and health care facilities, hazardous materials storage areas and large public occupancy area
Consist of horizontal pattern of ceiling pipes with outlets and sprinkler heads
Sprinkler heads can be upright, pendant or sidewall type

100. Automatic sprinklers activated by abnormally high temperature which should be 13.9 o C greater than expected maximum ceiling temperature, ( o F) for ordinary sprinkler heads
Sprinkler system discharged water prevents fire spread from the area of origin. It cools burning materials by direct contact of water particles , absorbs heat, wets unburned combustibles and displaces oxygen

101. Sprinkler heat sensitive controls may be made of :
Metal alloys that fuse
Organic materials that soften
Organic liquids that expand and rupture their glass enclosure
Water supply may not close unless a main valve is manually closed

102. Water supply may close automatically (flow control sprinkler) once the ceiling temperature is reduced to ≤35o C
All types of sprinkler must replaced after use
Floor opening (stairwells, escalators, …) can be protected by sprinklers of high velocity water spray nozzles
Adequate water drainage system must be provided

103. Types of sprinkles Wet – pipe (most common):
Water is always standing under pressure in all pipes and mains
Used in heated areas or areas not subject to water piping freezing
Dry-pipe (used where freezing might be a problem)
Pipes are filled with compressed air or nitrogen gas under pressure ( to avoid rust) until the opening of a sprinkler head permits water flow
The system must be drained and re-pressurized after fire

104. Pre-action
Similar to dry-pipe except that water is admitted by a pre-action valve to the pipes before any sprinkler head has opened with a very early alarm as a result of signals received from supplemental fire detection system )smoke or heat sensors)
Used in building with contents subject to water damage such as computer rooms an retail stores

105. deluge
All sprinklers heads go off at once where a deluge valve will permit water flow only after a fire detection system is activated
Used in buildings with expected rapid spread of fire such as air-craft hangers, areas where flammable liquid fires may breakout and in buildings with especially high ceiling

106. Combined sprinklers and standpipes system
Combined systems use the water piping that serve both outlets for fire department use and outlets for automatic sprinklers

107. Sprinkler systems operation and maintenance
Should be located to detect a fire readily and to discharge water over the greatest area considering all obstructions (structural elements, lighting fixtures, HVAC ducts, and partitions)
in reality only a percentage of sprinklers will actually open to extinguish fire
Riser is a vertical water supply pipe that should be of sufficient size to supply sprinklers an any one floor

108. Risers should be located as to eliminate long dead end pipe runs
Cross-mains supply water to the branch lines that supply water to sprinklers
Adequate water drainage and slope mist be provided in sprinkler-served areas
Keep supply valve open

109. Do not shut supply valve prematurely during a fire
Flush out system regularly and clear from debris at intake using filter screens
Take necessary precautions to avoid wet sprinkler system piping freezing in cold areas
Keep sprinkler heads clear from obstructions or stored materials

110. Check sprinklers for corrosion
Insure adequate sprinklers water supply at all times
Insure sprinkler system working conditions at all times

111. Sprinklers layout
Individual sprinkler heads are connected together along branch lines
Layout of sprinkler system id a function of
Building occupancy and hazard conditions:
Light hazard- normal buildings
Ordinary hazard- factories, industrial areas
Extra hazard refineries, gas stations

112. Coverage area (m2)
Depends on the physical characteristics of the sprinkler head and available water flow and pressure

113. Spacing between sprinkler heads (m)
Maximum spacing is normally 4.5 m
Must not be too close to wet each others delaying activation when needed
If do ( i.e. less than 1.8 m around escalator opening) they should be separated at midway by cross or recessed baffle pockets

114. Sprinkler systems pipe sizing
Find required sprinkler operating water pressure using equations or manufacture’s data
Find static pressure loss due to elevation
Find pressure losses in pipes, valves and fittings
Find equivalent pipe length

115. Find available pressure . It must be greater than the system pressure
Find the pressure drop per unit length (pa/m) at required flow (charts)
Larger pipe sizes are often used to achieve lower friction losses, especially when available water pressure is low

116. Housekeeping and fire prevention
Separate fuels from ignition sources
Allow smoking only in designated areas
Avoid the accumulation of excess rubbish that might represent fire fuel source
Store all flammable and combustible liquids in proper storage

117. Do not store flammable materials near fire ignition sources ( e. g
Do not store flammable materials near fire ignition sources ( e.g. boiler rooms, electric rooms, home water heater, etc.)
Use only the minimum amount of flammable or combustible liquids at the workplace at one time
Report hazards which could cause fire to ignite
Inspect electrical equipment for proper operation and safety
Identify trouble spots properly

118. General fire prevention strategies
Implement regular fire safety awareness and educational programs
Insure proper maintenance and operation of critical safety components/systems such as electrical equipment and electrical wiring and connections
Prevent overloading electrical outlets beyond their permitted capacities

119. Follow manufacturers recommendations in operating and maintaining electrical equipment and appliances
Implement continuous maintenance employee safety training
Train operators on fire fighting operations in case of fire
Publicize fire prevention rules and enforce them

120. Industrial fire suppression sustems
This subject is broad due to
The many types of industrial hazards
The many fire suppression options and methods available
The many fire suppression mediums available

121. Typical industrial hazards
Flammable liquids storage rooms
Printing machines areas
Electric motors rooms
Pump rooms
Paint lockers
Wood furnishing areas
Transformer rooms

122. Typical industrial fire protection means
Total flooding
Local applications using tank side type of discharge
Local applications using overhang type of discharge

123. Typical industrial fire extinguishing mediums
Multi-purpose dry chemicals
Potassium bi-carbonate (purple-K) dry chemicals
Sodium bi-carbonate dry chemicals
Carbon dioxide
Halon 1211
Foam

124. References
Stein, B. and J. S. Reynolds, Walter Grondzik and Alison Kowk, Mechanical and electrical equipment for buildings, 10th edition , John Wiley &Sons, New York
Fuchs , Sheldon J nd edition. Complete building equipment maintenance desk book. Prentice Hall, New Jersey , USA
Egan, M. David Concepts in building safety . John Wiley & Sons, New York , USA