1. Shaping your Study
Research Design

2. One option Rationale: Why the proposed research is important;
Objective & Results: What you hope to achieve & what practical benefits or addition to knowledge;
Research Idea: What the research will investigate and why;

3. One option
Previous Work: An indication of other work highlighting gaps your research will fill;
Methodology: How the research will be carried out, including sources, approach and methods;
Research Success: Likely problems and how to deal with them.

4. One option
Proposed Timetable: An outline of how much time will be spent on each stage;
Outline: Chapter headings and short description of each chapter.

5. Another Option
Research Audit from Clough and Nutbrown ‘ A Student’s Guide to Methodology;

6. Either Way Presentation of your research design in final session
10 minutes maximum
Overhead and powerpoint available
Peer reviewed
Content
Clarity

7. Research Design
Introduction: research idea, objective, and summary of structure (chapters);
Background: for a better understanding of the argument;

8. Research Design
Theoretical Background: conceptual knowledge about subject area and related problems and debates, including a critical review of other published work (state of knowledge in your area) and how your research fits in or contributes to the general debate;

9. Research Design
Findings, Analysis & Discussion: present your fieldwork/library/archive data and differentiate between your own findings and other secondary sources being used, highlight the significance of your findings with regard to your argument /approach/methods, and consider the implications of your findings for existing knowledge/debates and research;

10. Research Design
Conclusions & Recommendations: concise summary of argument and results including a reflexive account of the research process and problems encountered in practice and how they may have influenced the results, and suggestions for further research or practical action (policy).

11. Research Design
Appendices: information which is useful (background) to a better understanding and interpretation of the research findings, but would be too disrupting to the main thesis argument

12. Or Introduction Literature Review
Research Context, questions and rationale
Research Methods and methodology
Data Collection and analysis
Research Findings
Reflection on the study
Conclusions
References
Appendices
Also issue of presentation has become important with ICT now add colour tables, graphics, phots and other illustrations, so you can think about how these things will add to your research narrative and what you are trying to convince us about, so if you are talking about youth fashion and its impact on gangs formation, obviously pictures will be of help, they will not be so much if your project is looking at unemployment statistics from and their impact on structural macroeconomic theory.

13. But…. No research same and should be moulded to your project
Already written essays and therefore have an idea of format comfortable with
Structure of writing should depend on research story

14. But…………
Rough guides which are basic elements, however you choose to order them, so good check list.

15. Abstract Writing

16. Literature Review

17. Four Analysis Tasks of the Literature Review
As you’ll remember the four tasks of the literature review include:
Let’s look at summary and synthesis…

18. Sample Language for Comparison and Critique
In this ambitious but flawed study, Jones and Wang…
These general results, reflecting the stochastic nature of the flow of goods, are similar to those reported by Rosenblatt and Roll…

19. Example: Comparison and Critique
The critical response to the poetry of Phillis Wheatley often registers disappointment or surprise. Some critics have complained that the verse of this African American slave is insecure (Collins 1975, 78), imitative (Richmond 1974, 54-66), and incapacitated (Burke 1991, 33, 38)—at worst, the product of a “White mind” (Jameson 1974, ). Others, in contrast, have applauded Wheatley’s critique of Anglo-American discourse(Kendrick 1993,222-23), her revision of literary models…

20. Example: Comparison and Critique
The situationist model has also received its share of criticism. One of the most frequently cited shortcomings of this approach centers around the assumption that individuals enter into the work context tabula rasa.

21. Evaluative Adjectives
Unusual
Small
Simple
Exploratory
Limited
Restricted
Flawed
Complex
Competent
Important
Innovative
Impressive
Useful
Careful
As you write, you’ll want to utilize evaluate words to articulate your critique. Some possibilities include…
Now, let’s return to the central questions of a literature review

22. Analyzing: Putting It All Together
Once you have summarized, synthesized, compared, and critiqued your chosen material, you may consider whether these studies
Demonstrate the topic’s chronological development.
Show different approaches to the problem.
Show an ongoing debate.
Center on a “seminal” study or studies.
Demonstrate a “paradigm shift.”

23. Distant to Close: Characteristics
A type of topical organization, with studies grouped by their relevance to current research.
Starts by describing studies with general similarities to current research and ends with studies most relevant to the specific topic.
Most useful for studies of methods or models.

24. Distant to Close: Typical Language
Method/Model M (slightly similar to current research) addresses …
Drawing upon method/model N (more similar to current research) can help . . .
This study applies the procedure used in method/model O (most similar to current research) to . . .

25. Debate: Characteristics
Another type of topical approach, with a chronological component.
Emphasizes various strands of research in which proponents of various models openly criticize one another.
Most useful when clear opposing positions are present in the literature.

26. Debate: Typical Language
There have been two (three, four, etc.) distinct approaches this problem.
The first model posits…
The second model argues that the first model is wrong for three reasons. Instead, the second model claims…

27. Chronological: Characteristics
Lists studies in terms of chronological development
Useful when the field displays clear development over a period of time
Linear progression
Paradigm shift

28. Chronological: Typical Language
This subject was first studied by X, who argued/found…
In (date), Y modified/extended/contradicted X’s work by…
Today, research by Z represents the current state of the field.

29. Seminal Study: Characteristics
Begins with detailed description of extremely important study.
Later work is organized using another pattern.
Most useful when one study is clearly most important or central in laying the groundwork for future research.
Let’s look at four short examples—please read through the examples and in groups of three or four try to identify the patterns of organization, label the patterns…

30. Seminal Study: Typical Language
The most important research on this topic was the study by X in (date).
Following X’s study, research fell into two camps (extended X’s work, etc.)

31. Planning
Focus
What is the specific thesis, problem, or research question that my literature review helps to define?
Identifying a focus that allows you to:
Sort and categorize information
Eliminate irrelevant information
Type
What type of literature review am I conducting?
Theory; Methodology; Policy; Quantitative; Qualitative

32. Unit of Observation & Analysis
What we look at to make observation
E.g., People in a survey, articles in content analysis
Unit of analysis
What we are interested in studying
Usually same as unit of analysis; sometimes different:
E.g., Are “traditional” marriages more successful?
Unit of observation: husbands, wives
Unit of analysis: marriage type (couple)

33. Types of Units of Analysis
Individuals
Groups
Organizations
Social Interactions
Social Artifacts
- However, bear in mind this is only one typology. E.g., Lofland’s: practices, episodes, encounters, roles, relationships, groups, organizations, settlements, social worlds, lifestyles, and subcultures.
- What is important is the logic of units of analysis.

34. Faulty Reasoning & Units of Analysis
Problems of drawing conclusions across units of analysis:
Ecological fallacy
Reductionism

35. Ecological Fallacy Observed characteristic of group leads to:
Inference about individual members
Similar to Prejudice
Individual judgments based on beliefs about group
E.g., Precinct voting records are unit of observation concerning support for democratic candidates
Majority Black precincts vote democratic
You can not assume that Blacks uniformly vote democratic
Whites within precincts may be responsible for pattern

36. Reductionism
Reducing complex phenomenon in a way that privileges particular units of analysis over others
E.g., Crime is a function of individual characteristics
What about social structures?
Economists: Economic reductionism
Psychologists: Psychological reductionism
Sociologists: Sociological reductionism
Dominant paradigms often limit views