1. President Eisenhower, the Antarctic Treaty and the
Origin of International Spaces
Science Diplomacy: Antarctica, Science and the
Governance of International Spaces
Prof. Paul Arthur Berkman
Professor of Practice in Science Diplomacy
Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy
Tufts University

2. President Dwight D. Eisenhower
PRESIDENTIAL INAUGURAL ADDRESS
Washington, DC – January 20, 1953
President Dwight D. Eisenhower
“a day of freedom and of peace
for all mankind”

3. Beyond National Jurisdictions (impacts, issues and resources)
National interests Common Interests
Deep Sea 1971
Outer Space
1967
Antarctica 1959
High Seas 1958
Berkman Nature 462:

4. BALLISTIC MISSILES

5. INTERNATIONAL SPACES

6. BEYOND NATIONAL BOUNDARIES (International Spaces)

7. 3rd INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR
Baltimore – April 5, 1950
Sydney Chapman
International Council of Scientific Unions
Lloyd Berkner
Rocket Scientist
James Van Allen
Upper Atmospheric Physicist

9. INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC UNIONS Rome – 4 October 1954
July 1, 1957 – December 31, 1958
Comité Spécial de l’Année Géophysique Internationale (CSAGI)
“…CSAGI recommends that thought be given to the launching of small satellite vehicles, to their scientific instrumentation, and to the new problems associated with satellite experiments…”

10. NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL MEETINGS
EISENHOWER ADMINISTRATION ( )
Sep 08, 1955 – Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles, Antarctica, Iran, …
Jan 12, 1956 – Stockpiles, Budget, Antarctica, Nuclear Weapons
Jun 20, 1957 – Nuclear Weapons, Ethiopia, Antarctica, Defense Policy
Jun 26, 1957 – Antarctica, Libya, Turkey, Defense Policy
Mar 06, 1958 – Antarctica, Space Policy, Scientific
Aug 07, 1958 – Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles, Korea, Antarctica, …
Dec 10, 1959 – Antarctica, Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles

11. President Dwight D. Eisenhower
“OPEN SKIES” (FREEDOM OF SPACE) PROPOSAL
Geneva – July 21, 1955
First Post-War Summit
President Dwight D. Eisenhower
“I propose… To give to each other a complete blueprint of our military establishments… ample facilities for aerial reconnaissance… comprehensive and effective system of inspection and disarmament...”

12. FIRST SPACE POLICY OF THE UNITED STATES National Security Council 5520
Washington D.C. – May 20, 1955
National Security Council 5520
“…a program for a small scientific satellite could be developed from existing missile programs already underway within the Department of Defense.”
“The IGY affords an excellent opportunity to mesh a scientific satellite program with the cooperative world- wide geophysical observational program”
“Considerable prestige and psychological benefits will accrue to the nation which first is successful in launching a satellite.”

13. WHITE HOUSE PRESS ANNOUNCEMENT
Washington, DC – July 29, 1955
James C. Hagerty
Based on National Security Council 5520 – the United States will launch “small Earth-circling satellites” as part of the American participation in the International Geophysical Year.

14. ARMY BALLISTIC MISSILE AGENCY Redstone Arsenal – September 20, 1956
The 4-stage ‘Jupiter C RS-27’ was launched from Redstone with the fourth stage intentionally inactivated. This rocket attained a range of 3335 miles and an altitude of 682 miles and “could have obtained sufficient velocity to place it in orbit, if the last stage had been activated.”
Wernher von Braun

15. Why did the United States choose not to be the first in space – in stark contrast to the race for “priority” that has motivated nations and explorers alike throughout human history?

16. SPUTNIK LAUNCHED BY THE SOVIET UNION
Earth Orbit – October 4, 1957

17. UNITED STATES LAUNCH OF EXPLORER 1 (MODIFIED JUPITER-C ROCKET)
Earth Orbit – February 1, 1958

18. President Dwight D. Eisenhower
INVITATION TO NEGOTIATE AN ANTARCTIC TREATY
Washington, DC – May 3, 1958
President Dwight D. Eisenhower
“THE UNITED STATES is dedicated to the principle that the vast uninhabited wastes of Antarctica shall be used only for peaceful purposes. We do not want Antarctica to become an object of political conflict. Accordingly, the United States has invited eleven other countries, including the Soviet Union, to confer with us to seek an effective joint means of achieving this objective.”

19. CONFERENCE ON ANTARCTICA Washington, DC – October 15-December, 1959
Sir Esler Dening
Her Majesty’s Government in the United Kingdom have for many years been in favour of the conclusion of an agreement between countries actively interested in the Antarctic…For these reasons, as long ago as 1948, they indicated their readiness to accept proposals put forward by the United States Government for an international regime in the Antarctic. Ten years later, they welcomed equally the invitation of President Eisenhower, extended in May 1958…

20. Washington, DC – December 1, 1959
ANTARCTIC TREATY
Washington, DC – December 1, 1959
Preamble
The Governments of Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, the French Republic, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, the Union of South Africa, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America,
Recognizing that it is in the interest of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue for ever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord;
Acknowledging the substantial contributions to scientific knowledge resulting from international cooperation in scientific investigation in Antarctica;
Convinced that the establishment of a firm foundation for the continuation and development of such cooperation on the basis of freedom of scientific investigation in Antarctica as applied during the International Geophysical Year accords with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind;
Convinced also that a treaty ensuring the use of Antarctica for peaceful purposes only and the continuance of international harmony in Antarctica will further the purposes and principles embodied in the Charter of the United Nations;
Have agreed as follows:

21. Washington, DC – December 1, 1959
ANTARCTIC TREATY
Washington, DC – December 1, 1959
Preamble Interest of all Mankind
Article I Peaceful Purposes Only
Article II Freedom of Scientific Investigation
Article III International Cooperation in Scientific Investigation
Article IV No Basis for Asserting, Supporting or Denying Claims
Article V No Nuclear Explosions or Radioactive Waste Disposal
Article VI Area of Application South of 60o South Latitude
Article VII Freedom of Access and Inspection by Designated Observers
Article VIII Jurisdiction by the Contracting Parties over their own Nationals
Article IX Consulting and Recommending Measures of Common Interest
Article X Consistent with Charter of the United Nations
Article XI Resolve Disputes by Peaceful Means
Article XII Antarctic Treaty Modifications and Amendment
Article XIII Accession and Ratification
Article XIV Official Languages and Depository Government

22. “…any nuclear explosions in Antarctica and the disposal there of radioactive waste material shall be prohibited.”
“…aerial observation may be carried out at any time over any or all areas of Antarctica by any of the Contracting Parties.”

23. “Matters of Common Interest”

24. Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
National Museum of Natural History
November 30 – December 3, 2009
Washington, D.C.

25. ANTARCTICA DAY – DECEMBER 1ST Day of Peace for All Mankind