1. Unit 06 - Overview How We Learn and Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning’s Applications, and Comparison to Classical Conditioning
Biology, Cognition, and Learning
Learning By Observation
Click on the any of the above hyperlinks to go to that section in the presentation.

3. How Do We Learn? Learning Habituation Stimulus Associative learning
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Cognitive learning
Observational learning

4. Definition
Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.
Learning is more flexible in comparison to the genetically-programmed behaviors of Chinooks, for example.

5. How Do We Learn? Classical Conditioning

6. Stimulus-Stimulus Learning
Learning to associate one stimulus
with another.

7. How Do We Learn? Operant Conditioning

8. Response-Consequence Learning
Learning to associate a response
with a consequence.

9. How do we learn?
observational learning – learning by watching others’ experiences and examples.

10. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
John B. Watson
Behaviorism

11. Classical Conditioning- Pavlov’s Experiment
Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, it was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical conditioning. His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson and B. F. Skinner.
Sovfoto
Ivan Pavlov ( )

12. Pavlov’s Experiments
Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.
OBJECTIVE 2| Explain how an unconditioned stimulus (US)

13. Pavlov’s Experiments
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that automatically and naturally triggers a response. Unconditioned Response (UCR): A unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, like salivation in the dog when food is in the mouth. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Originally a neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response. Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus.

14. CC Pavlov’s experiment with dogs: food in mouth  salivation
after repetition the dog would salivate even when stimuli associated with food was presented (dish, footsteps, door opening, etc.)
he decided to experiment

15. Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Experiments

16. CC Dog was isolated and harnessed! Present food through opening
Paired a neutral stimulus with presentation of food (a tone, a light, etc.)
Dog forms an association b/w neutral stimulus and food
Dog begins to salivate just with neutral stimulus
It works with people too!!!

17. Classical Conditioning

18. Classical Condition – VERY IMPORTANT TERMS!!!
UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UR): a naturally occurring response to a stimuli (it doesn’t have to be learned)
UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (US): a stimulus that naturally triggers a response
CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR): a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS): used to be the neutral stimulus; but after pairing it with a US it triggers a conditioned response

19. (Hopefully) A HELPFUL SUMMARY
Conditioned = learned
UNconditioned = UNlearned or instinctive

20. Classical Conditioning Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial
stage in classical conditioning
in which an association
between a neutral stimulus
and an unconditioned stimulus
takes place
Higher-order conditioning

21. Classical Conditioning Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
Extinction When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction.

22. Classical Conditioning Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again.
Spontaneous recovery

23. Classical Conditioning Generalization
a tendency to respond
to stimuli similar to
the CS

24. Generalization in a nutshell
John Watson
SICKO!!

25. Classical Conditioning Discrimination
Discrimination the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

26. Discrimination in a nutshell
Like dogs?
Which one are you afraid of??

27. Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Legacy
Classical conditioning applies to other organisms
Showed how to study a topic scientifically

28. John Watson and Baby Albert
Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Legacy: Applications of Classical Conditioning
John Watson and Baby Albert

30. Difference b/w CC and OC
Classical Conditioning – the organism learns associations between events that it DOES NOT control.
Operant Conditioning – the organism learns associations between its behavior and resulting events.

31. Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning Operant conditioning
Respondent behavior
Operant conditioning
Actions associated with consequences
Operant behavior

32. Skinner’s Experiments
Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect
B.F. Skinner
Behavioral technology
Behavior control
This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again.

33. Skinner’s Experiments
Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)
Reinforcement

34. Skinner’s Experiments Shaping Behavior
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations.
Shaping
Successive approximations
Discriminative stimulus

35. Shaping Example
Avion has difficulty kicking the kickball while playing with the class during recess and physical education class.  Put these steps in her shaping program in the correct order.
Avion will run to an approaching ball rolled slowly by the teacher and kick it firmly.
Avion will stand in place and kick a stationary ball.
Avion will run to a quickly approaching ball that has spin on it and kick it firmly.
Avion will stand in place and firmly kick a slowly approaching ball rolled by the teacher.
Avion will run to an approaching ball rolled quickly by another student and kick it firmly.

36. Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement

37. Primary reinforcer – innately reinforcing (food, water)
Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers: Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
Primary reinforcer – innately reinforcing (food, water)
Conditioned reinforcer
Secondary reinforcer
Immediate vs delayed reinforcers

38. Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous reinforcement
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement
Schedules
Fixed-ratio schedule
Variable-ratio schedule
Fixed-interval schedule
Variable-interval schedule

39. Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules

40. Examples: Which Schedule…?
Studying for an exam when it gets close
Preparing every night for a possible “pop quiz”
Factory worker being paid based on the number of sleeves they sew on a sweatshirt.
Casting out to catch a fish all afternoon long.

41. Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules

42. Skinner’s Experiments Punishment
Positive punishment
Negative punishment

43. Skinner’s Experiments Punishment
Negatives of using punishment
Punished behavior is suppressed not forgotten
Punishment teaches discrimination
Punishment can teach fear
Physical punishment may increase aggression

44. Skinner’s Legacy
Controversies surrounding Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will (to the video tape!).

46. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct rewards.
OBJECTIVE 19| Describe some ways to apply operant conditioning principles at school, at work and at home.
LWA-JDL/ Corbis
In School

47. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic performance.
In Sports

48. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share profits and participate in company ownership.
At work

49. Applications of Operant Conditioning
In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.

50. Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning

51. Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning

52. Extending Pavlov’s Understanding
Pavlov and Watson underestimated the importance of cognitive processes and biological constraints on learning.

53. Biological Constraints on Conditioning

54. Biological Predispositions
Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals.
No difference in how Pigeons and People learn.
What, what??
However, behaviorists later suggested that learning is constrained by an animal’s biology.
OBJECTIVE 7| Describe some of the ways that biological predisposition can affect learning by classical conditioning.

55. Natural Selection and Learning
Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Classical Conditioning
Important name!!
John Garcia
Conditioned Taste Aversion
Biologically primed associations
Natural Selection and Learning
Genetic predisposition

56. Biological Predispositions
Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but yet result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning and not to others (light or sound).
Courtesy of John Garcia
John Garcia

57. Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Classical Conditioning

58. Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Operant Conditioning
Naturally adapting behaviors
Instinctive drift

59. Biological Predisposition
Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive.
Breland and Breland (1961) showed that animals drift towards their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors.
OBJECTIVE 17| Explain how biological predisposition place limits on what can be achieved through operant conditioning.
Photo: Bob Bailey
Marian Breland Bailey

60. Recall your participation in the balloon pop demo!
Cognitive Processes
Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be reduced to mindless mechanisms.
However, later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus (Rescorla, 1988).
Recall your participation in the balloon pop demo!
OBJECTIVE 6| Discuss the importance of cognitive processes in classical conditioning.

61. Predictability of an event Stimulus associations
Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning Cognitive Processes and Classical Conditioning
Predictability of an event
Expectancy
Stimulus associations

62. Cognition & Operant Conditioning
Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the layout of the maze (environment).
OBJECTIVE 16| Explain how latent learning and the effect of external rewards demonstrate that cognitive processing is an important part of learning

63. LATENT LEARNING
Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

64. Would you be able to find your way?

65. Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.
Remember the study with school-age artists?

66. Influences on Conditioning

67. Learning and Personal Control
Cope
Problem-focused coping
Emotion-focused coping

68. Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness
Learned helplessness (Martin Seligman)

69. External locus of control Internal locus of control
Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness: Internal Versus External Locus of Control
External locus of control
Internal locus of control

70. Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness: Depleting and Strengthening Self-Control

72. Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain
Observational learning
Social learning
Modeling
Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment

73. Albert Bandura Still alive today (born 1925)
Social Cognitive Learning Theory
We look and we learn.
Bobo Doll Experiment

74. modeling – the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
other “less structured” examples:
fashion, catch phrases, traditions, fads – all spread by imitation

75. Bo-Bo Doll Experiment Albert Bandura

76. Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain
Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.
Mirror neurons

77. Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain
Cognitive imitation

78. Prosocial effects Antisocial effects
Applications of Observational Learning Prosocial versus Antisocial Effects
Prosocial effects
Antisocial effects

79. Applications of Observational Learning
Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects.

80. Positive Observational Learning
Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.
OBJECTIVE 23| Discuss the impact of prosocial modeling.
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works

81. The End

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83. Teacher Information Unit Coding
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Psychology’s History and Approaches
Research Methods
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Sensation and Perception
States of Consciousness
Learning
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Motivation, Emotion, and Stress
Developmental Psychology
Personality
Testing and Individual Differences
Abnormal Psychology
Treatment of Abnormal Behavior
Social Psychology

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89. Definition Slides

90. Learning
= the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

91. Habituation
= an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.

92. Associative Learning
= learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

93. Stimulus
= any event or situation that evokes a response.

94. Cognitive Learning
= the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

95. Classical Conditioning
= a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

96. Behaviorism
= the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

97. Neutral Stimulus
= in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

98. Unconditioned Response (UR)
= in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

99. Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
= in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally – naturally and automatically – triggers a response (UR).

100. Conditioned Response (CR)
= in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

101. Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
= in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

102. Acquisition
= in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

103. Higher-Order Conditioning
= a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

104. Extinction
= the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

105. Spontaneous Recovery
= the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

106. Generalization
= the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

107. Discrimination
= in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

108. Operant Conditioning
= a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

109. Law of Effect
= Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

110. Operant Chamber
= in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner Box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

111. Reinforcement
= in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

112. Shaping
= an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

113. Discriminative Stimulus
= in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

114. Positive Reinforcement
= increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

115. Negative Reinforcement
= increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response
Note: negative reinforcement is NOT punishment.

116. Primary Reinforcer
= an innately reinforcer stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

117. Conditioned Reinforcer
= a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

118. Reinforcement Schedule
= a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

119. Continuous Reinforcement
= reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

120. Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement
= reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

121. Fixed-Ratio Schedule
= in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific number of responses.

122. Variable-Ratio Schedule
= in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

123. Fixed-Interval Schedule
= in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific time has elapsed.

124. Variable-Interval Schedule
= in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

125. Punishment
= an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

126. Biofeedback
= a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

127. Respondent Behavior
= behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

128. Operant Behavior
= behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

129. Cognitive Map
= a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

130. Latent Learning
= learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

131. Insight
= a sudden realization problem’s solution.

132. Intrinsic Motivation
= a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

133. Extrinsic Motivation
= a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

134. Coping
= alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.

135. Problem-Focused Coping
= attempting to alleviate stress directly – by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

136. Emotion-Focused Coping
= attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction.

137. Learned Helplessness
= the helplessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

138. External Locus of Control
= the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

139. Internal Locus of Control
= the perception that you control your own fate.

140. Self-Control
= the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.

141. Observational Learning
= learning by observing others. Also called social learning.

142. Modeling
= the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

143. Mirror Neurons
= frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.

144. Prosocial Behavior
= positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.