Myers’ Psychology for AP®, 2e

Myers’ Psychology for AP®, 2e
David G. Myers PowerPoint Presentation Slides by Kent Korek Germantown High School Worth Publishers, © 2014 AP® is a trademark registered and/or owned by the College Board ®, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product.

Unit 6: Learning

Unit 06 - Overview How We Learn and Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning’s Applications, and Comparison to Classical Conditioning Biology, Cognition, and Learning Learning By Observation Click on the any of the above hyperlinks to go to that section in the presentation.

Module 26: How We Learn and Classical Conditioning

How Do We Learn?

How Do We Learn? Learning Habituation Stimulus Associative learning
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Cognitive learning Observational learning

Learning the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. Enables humans to be especially adaptable to our environments, perhaps our most outstanding trait as human beings.

Basic Forms of Learning
Habituation- an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it. Habituation is NOT the same thing as sensory adaptation. Both involve a diminished response, but in the case of habituation, it is a form of learning, not a function of the sensory system. Essentially, through experience, you learn to react to a stimulus less.

Basic Forms of Learning
Cognitive Learning- the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language. Ex. Observational Learning- learning by observing others. Also called social learning.

Basic Forms of Learning Continued
Associative Learning- learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning). Stimulus- any event or situation that evokes a response.

Conditioning Two Basic Forms
Classical Conditioning- we learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events. Operant Conditioning- We learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequences, thus we (and other animals) learn to repeat acts followed by good results and avoid acts followed by bad results.

How Do We Learn? Classical Conditioning

How Do We Learn? Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov John B. Watson Behaviorism

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.* First explored, very famously, by Ivan Pavlov. *the unconditioned response must be automatic.

Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Experiments
Ivan Pavlov

Parts of Classical Conditioning Neutral Stimulus (NS) Unconditioned stimulus (US) Unconditioned response (UR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR)

Parts of Classical Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus (NS)- in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning (NS). Unconditioned Stimulus (US)- in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally – naturally and automatically – triggers a response (UR). Unconditioned Response (UR)- in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. Conditioned Stimulus (CS)- in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR). Conditioned Response (CR)- in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Pavlov’s device for recording (a tube in the dog’s cheek collects saliva, which
is measured in a cylinder outside the chamber).

Pavlov presented a neutral stimulus (a tone) just before an unconditioned stimulus (food in mouth). The neutrals stimulus then became a conditioned stimulus, producing a conditioned response.

Psychologist Michael Tirrell recalled that his first girlfriend loved onions, so he came to associate onion breath with kissing.

Typical Example: A mild electric shock is used to teach a rat to flex his forepaw when he hears a tone. US UR NS CS CR Shock Paw flex Tone Tone Paw flex

Office Example In the groundbreaking TV show, The Office, there is, allegedly, a famous example of classical conditioning. Looking at it more closely, there are a few problems with this example. Why?

Office Example US Altoid? UR NS Hand extension CS CR Reboot sound?
Is the Altoid really an Unconditioned Stimulus? Is the Hand extension really an Unconditioned Stimulus?

Classical Conditioning Acquisition
Higher-order conditioning

Acquisition in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Higher Order Conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

Classical Conditioning Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
The rising curve shows that the CR grows stronger as the NS is repeatedly paired with the US to become the CS (acquisition), then weakens as the CS is presented alone (extinction).

Extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Spontaneous Recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Classical Conditioning Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
After a pause, the CR reappears (spontaneous recovery)

Classical Conditioning Generalization

Generalization the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. Ex. A dog conditioned to one tone, would also respond to a new and somewhat different tone.

Classical Conditioning Discrimination

Discrimination in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. Ex. Guard dog vs guide dog.

Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Legacy
Classical conditioning applies to other organisms Showed how to study a topic scientifically

Pavlov Was a Huge Influence on Watson and Behaviorism
John Watson used the ideas of Pavlov as a basis for his work, which is the foundation of behaviorism. Behaviorism- the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

John Watson and Baby Albert
Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Legacy: Applications of Classical Conditioning John Watson and Baby Albert

Baby Albert US UR NS CS CR Loud noise Fear behaviors White rat

Module 27: Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning Operant conditioning
Respondent behavior Operant conditioning Actions associated with consequences Operant behavior

Operant Conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. The focus is on using positive consequences to encourage the continuance of behavior, and negative consequences to encourage the avoidance of behavior. The underlying principle is what Thorndike called, the Law of Effect.

Skinner’s Experiments

Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect B.F. Skinner Behavioral technology Behavior control

Law of Effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. Edward L. Thorndike was a tremendous influence on psychology, and Behaviorism. Thorndike use a fish reward to entice cats to find their way out of a puzzle box. This would be a huge influence on B.F. Skinner.

B.F. Skinner B.F. Skinner used the ideas of Thorndike to develop his operant chamber, or Skinner box, in which he could measure the impact of reinforcement on behavior, without interference from outside sources.

Operant Chamber and Reinforcement
Operant Chamber- in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner Box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Reinforcement- in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Operant Chamber (Skinner Box) Reinforcement

Classical vs Operant https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H6LEcM0E0io
Classical Conditioning- we learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events. Operant Conditioning- We learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequences, thus we (and other animals) learn to repeat acts followed by good results and avoid acts followed by bad results.

Skinner’s Experiments Shaping Behavior
Successive approximations Discriminative stimulus

Shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. By making rewards contingent on desired behaviors, researchers and animal trainers gradually shape complex behaviors.

Shaping and Perception
Shaping can demonstrate how non-verbal organisms perceive. For example, when researchers can get a baby, or dog to respond to a particular stimulus and not to others, it demonstrates that the organism does recognize that particular stimulus. Discriminative Stimulus- in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

Positive vs Negative Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement- increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Negative Reinforcement- increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response Note: negative reinforcement is NOT punishment.

Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers
Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement

Primary Reinforcer vs Conditioned Reinforcer
Primary Reinforcer- an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. -food, water, eliminating pain, etc. Conditioned Reinforcer- a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer. -A pleasant tone of voice, a smile, money, good grades, etc.

Immediate vs Delayed Reinforcers
Immediate reinforcers are those provided very soon after a desired act. Delayed reinforcers are those that do not come immediately. Animals typically need reinforcements that come within 30 seconds of the desired behavior for them to learn. An essential element of being human is the ability to delay reinforcement.

Conditioned reinforcer Immediate vs delayed reinforcers
Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers: Primary and Secondary Reinforcers Primary reinforcer Conditioned reinforcer Secondary reinforcer Immediate vs delayed reinforcers

Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous reinforcement-reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Reinforcement Schedule- a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced. Partial (intermittent) reinforcement- reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. Fixed-ratio schedule- in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific number of responses. Variable-ratio schedule- in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Reinforcement Schedules Continued
Fixed-interval schedule- in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific time has elapsed. Variable-interval schedule- in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules

Previous Chart Skinner’s laboratory pigeons produced these response patterns to each of four reinforcement schedules (reinforcers are indicated by diagonal marks). For people, as for pigeons, reinforcement linked to number of responses (a ratio schedule) produces a higher response rate than reinforcement linked to amount of time elapsed (an interval schedule). But the predictability of the reward also matters. An unpredictable (variable) schedule produces more consistent responding than does a predictable (fixed) schedule.

Skinner’s Experiments Punishment
Punishment- an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows. Positive punishment Negative punishment

Positive punishment Negative punishment

The Big Bang…Again.

Negatives of using punishment Punished behavior is suppressed not forgotten Punishment teaches discrimination Punishment can teach fear Physical punishment may increase aggression

Skinner’s Legacy

Skinner’s Legacy Controversies surrounding Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Skinner’s Legacy B.F. Skinner insisted that outside forces shaped behavior, and encouraged using the methods of reinforcement to produce positive results. He believed reinforcement and punishment were already shaping behavior anyway, so why not control the process, and thus, shape behavior in a desirable way. Critics felt that Skinner ignored individuality and free-will, essentially stripping people of their humanity.

Module 28: Operant Conditioning’s Applications, and Comparison to Classical Conditioning

Application of Operant Conditioning

Application of Operant Conditioning
At school- Quizlet, Socrative, candy. In sports- Starting with a task that is easier to accomplish, and working up. Superstitions, i.e. certain socks, batting box routine, etc. At work- Boss passing out praise, bonuses, little competitions, etc. Notice someone doing things right, and reinforce it). At home- Potty training, putting kids to bed, etc. For self improvement- getting your spouses to do things you want, conditioning yourself to study, or exercise, etc.

Keys to Using Conditioning
State your goal measurable terms, and announce it. Monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior. Reinforce the desired behavior. Reduce the rewards gradually.

Biofeedback A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension. In the 1960’s, there was some research that made the possibilities of Biofeedback seem fantastic. As it turns out, research indicates that tension headaches are the most impacted by biofeedback.

Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning

Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning

Biological Constraints on Conditioning

Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Classical Conditioning
John Garcia (and Robert Koelling) Conditioned Taste Aversion: rats were exposed to a particular taste, sight, or sound, and then exposed to material that would make them sick. The rats would then become averse to the taste, but not the sight or sound. When the rats were sickened significantly later, they would still become taste averse. This is likely because the best way for the rat (or the human) to avoid eating toxic food, is to develop the sense of taste to discern the toxic nature, and then develop aversion to it. Biologically primed associations are associations that develop because we are predisposed toward them. An example of natural selection at work.

A tainted bit of sheep meat
was intentionally left out for the wolves to find. When they became sick from the meat, they later avoided attacking sheep altogether

Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Classical Conditioning

Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Operant Conditioning
We most readily learn and retain behaviors that reflect our biological predispositions, or put another way, biological constraints Predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. Ex. Horses

Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning

Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning Cognitive Processes and Classical Conditioning
Cognitive processes, i.e.thoughts, perceptions, expectations can impact classical conditioning. Animals can learn the predictability of an event. Ex. Rats and Dogs get a shock after every tone, but will sometimes have a light precede the tone, the light is neutral. Latent Learning- learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. Cognitive Map- a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it. Insight- a sudden realization problem’s solution. Intrinsic Motivation- a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake. vs Extrinsic Motivation- a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Latent learning Insight Cognitive map Intrinsic motivation
Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning Cognitive Processes and Operant Conditioning Latent learning Cognitive map Insight Intrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation

Influences on Conditioning

Learning and Personal Control

Cope Problem-focused coping Emotion-focused coping

Cope- alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods. Problem Focused Coping- attempting to alleviate stress directly – by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. Emotion Focused Coping- attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction.

Learned Helplessness The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. Ex. Dogs repeatedly given shocks with no way out, became cowardly and defeated later when facing a shock, but this time, having a path to escape. Dogs who had never been given a no way out scenario, quickly escaped every time. People who are repeatedly faced with traumatic events, over which they have no control, will often develop the learned helplessness. What are the social implications?

Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness
Learned helplessness (Martin Seligman)

External locus of control Internal locus of control
Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness: Internal Versus External Locus of Control External locus of control Internal locus of control

External Locus of Control- the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate. Internal Locus of Control- the perception that you control your own fate.

Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness: Depleting and Strengthening Self-Control
Self-control- = the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.

Module 30: Learning by Observation

Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain

Observational learning Social learning Modeling Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment

Learning by Observation
Observational Learning- learning by observing others. Also called social learning. Modeling-the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. Ex. Albert Bandura had kids draw a picture, while in a room with an adult working with tinker toys. The adult throws a temper tantrum, and beats up a large inflatable doll called Bobo. Later, when the children are confronted with adversity, they behaved in a strikingly similar way, when compared to children who had not been exposed.

Mirror neurons

Mirror Neurons frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy. First observed in monkeys who had a sensor placed in their brains to show activity when they moved. When the monkey saw people moving, the sensor would show activity, even though the monkey did not move.

Cognitive imitation

Cognitive Imitation Previous Page
Money A watched Monkey B touch four pictures on a display screen in a certain order to gain bananas. Money A learned to imitate that order, even when shown the same pictures in a different configuration.

Applications of Observational Learning

Prosocial effects Antisocial effects
Applications of Observational Learning Prosocial versus Antisocial Effects Prosocial effects Antisocial effects

Applications of Observational Learning
Prosocial Behavior- positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. Ex. Gandhi, MLK, good parental role models, good teachers and coaches, ministers, etc. What problems might come up?

Antisocial Effects Anti-social behavior- behavior that is negative, destructive behavior. -Can also be immitated. Violent TV and Video games?

The End

Teacher Information Types of Files Animation
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Teacher Information Unit Coding
Just as Myers’ Psychology for AP 2e is color coded to the College Board AP Psychology Course Description (Acorn Book) Units, so are these Powerpoints. The primary background color of each slide indicates the specific textbook unit. Psychology’s History and Approaches Research Methods Biological Bases of Behavior Sensation and Perception States of Consciousness Learning Cognition Motivation, Emotion, and Stress Developmental Psychology Personality Testing and Individual Differences Abnormal Psychology Treatment of Abnormal Behavior Social Psychology

Teacher Information Hyperlink Slides - This presentation contain two types of hyperlinks. Hyperlinks can be identified by the text being underlined and a different color (usually purple). Unit subsections hyperlinks: Immediately after the unit title and module title slide, a page can be found listing all of the unit’s subsections. While in slide show mode, clicking on any of these hyperlinks will take the user directly to the beginning of that subsection. Bold print term hyperlinks: Every bold print term from the unit is included in this presentation as a hyperlink. While in slide show mode, clicking on any of the hyperlinks will take the user to a slide containing the formal definition of the term. Clicking on the “arrow” in the bottom left corner of the definition slide will take the user back to the original point in the presentation. These hyperlinks were included for teachers who want students to see or copy down the exact definition as stated in the text. Most teachers prefer the definitions not be included to prevent students from only “copying down what is on the screen” and not actively listening to the presentation. For teachers who continually use the Bold Print Term Hyperlinks option, please contact the author using the address on the next slide to learn a technique to expedite the returning to the original point in the presentation.

Teacher Information Continuity slides
Throughout this presentation there are slides, usually of graphics or tables, that build on one another. These are included for three purposes. By presenting information in small chunks, students will find it easier to process and remember the concepts. By continually changing slides, students will stay interested in the presentation. To facilitate class discussion and critical thinking. Students should be encouraged to think about “what might come next” in the series of slides. Please feel free to contact me at with any questions, concerns, suggestions, etc. regarding these presentations. Kent Korek Germantown High School Germantown, WI 53022

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Definition Slides

Learning = the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

Habituation = an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.

Associative Learning = learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

Stimulus = any event or situation that evokes a response.

Cognitive Learning = the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

= a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Behaviorism = the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Neutral Stimulus = in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Unconditioned Response (UR)
= in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
= in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally – naturally and automatically – triggers a response (UR).

Conditioned Response (CR)
= in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
= in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

Acquisition = in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Higher-Order Conditioning
= a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

Extinction = the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Spontaneous Recovery = the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Generalization = the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Discrimination = in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning = a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Law of Effect = Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Operant Chamber = in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner Box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Reinforcement = in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Shaping = an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Discriminative Stimulus
= in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

Positive Reinforcement
= increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative Reinforcement
= increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response Note: negative reinforcement is NOT punishment.

Primary Reinforcer = an innately reinforcer stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

Conditioned Reinforcer
= a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

Reinforcement Schedule
= a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Continuous Reinforcement
= reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement
= reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule = in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific number of responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule
= in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-Interval Schedule
= in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific time has elapsed.

Variable-Interval Schedule
= in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Punishment = an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

Biofeedback = a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

Respondent Behavior = behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Operant Behavior = behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

Cognitive Map = a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Latent Learning = learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Insight = a sudden realization problem’s solution.

Intrinsic Motivation = a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Extrinsic Motivation = a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Coping = alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.

Problem-Focused Coping
= attempting to alleviate stress directly – by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

Emotion-Focused Coping
= attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction.

Learned Helplessness = the helplessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

External Locus of Control
= the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

Internal Locus of Control
= the perception that you control your own fate.

Self-Control = the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.

Observational Learning
= learning by observing others. Also called social learning.

Modeling = the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Mirror Neurons = frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.

Prosocial Behavior = positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Myers’ Psychology for AP®, 2e

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