1. What is Neuropsychology
Study of brain–behavior relations (sometimes
referred to as functional localization)
Functional Lateralization – refers to notion that
a function may depend on one side
(hemisphere) of the brain

3. Definition of Clinical Neuropsychologist
A clinical neuropsychologist is a professional psychologist who applies principles of assessment and intervention based upon the scientific study of human behavior as it relates to normal and abnormal functioning of the central nervous system. The clinical neuropsychologist is a doctoral-level psychology provider of diagnostic and intervention services who has demonstrated competence in the application of such principles for human welfare following:

4. A doctoral degree in psychology from an accredited university training program.
An internship, or its equivalent, in a clinically relevant area of professional psychology.
The equivalent of two (fulltime) years of experience and specialized training, at least one of which is at the post-doctoral level, in the study and practice of clinical neuropsychology and related neurosciences. These two years include supervision by a clinical neuropsychologist .
A license in his or her state or province to practice psychology and/or clinical neuropsychology independently, or is employed as a neuropsychologist by an exempt agency.

5. Neuropsychologists/ Subareas
Different types of
Neuropsychologists/ Subareas
􀁺 Experimental neuropsychologists – work to understand
the neural bases of cognition by doing studies
– Experimental neuropsychology = cognitive neuropsychology or cognitive neuroscience
􀁺 Clinical neuropsychologists – work in health-related
settings (e.g., hospitals, clinics) with patients
– Involved in diagnosis
– Involved in rehabilitation (e.g., designing programs)
– May be involved in research
– Clinical neuropsychology

6. How do we study brain-behavior relations? (Techniques)
Invasive
– Lesion
– Inject radioactive tracer
Non-invasive
– Brain-imaging to see what regions are active during specific mental task
– Record activity of cells to determine what activity makes them respond
– Present information to different hemispheres and see which side does task better or faster

7. Why study brain-behavior
relations?
􀁺 Diagnostic purposes
􀁺 Rehabilitation purposes
􀁺 Intellectual curiosity

8. Methods in
Neuropsychology

9. Method of converging operations:
Use a number of different methods and
populations
􀂄 Evidence obtained from a set of
experiments converge on the same
conclusion
– e.g., fMRI and lesion studies

10. Research considerations:
􀂄 What type of participants?
􀂄 How will we gather information about
their brains?
􀂄 How will be measure behavior?

11. Research Participants:
􀂄 (1) Patients with lesions
􀂄 (2) Healthy Individuals
􀂄 (3) Animals

12. Patients with lesions 􀂄 Question: What functions supported by this
neural site?
􀂄 Studies need to include patients with lesions
to a specific site and patients with lesions to a
different site
􀂄 ‘Double dissociation’ - lesions have converse
effects on two distinct cognitive functions
􀂄 Allow one to conclude that structures/
functions are independent

13. 􀂄 Question: What neural sites are
associated with a particular deficit?
– e.g., Memory impairment associated with
damage to:
– Brenda Milner’s work with temporal lobe epilepsy and memory where hippocampus was found to be important for learning

14. Problems with lesion method
􀂄 Brain damage messy in humans
(1) People vary in their genetic and
environmental characteristics
• e.g., differ in education, onset of dementia
– Lesions vary in their extent and origin
• Stroke vs tumor vs bullet
(2) Lesion does not allow us to observe directly the function served by the lesioned site

15. 􀂄 Only know how brain performs without
that particular area
􀂄 We can infer the site may be critical but we can not identify all the areas that may be involved
􀂄 Site may not be critical in performing a particular function: rather, may contain axons that connect regions that must interact for correct performance
– Disconnection syndrome
• Split brain
• Conduction aphasia

16. Associated problem: single cases or groups
􀂄 Groups of patients may be so hetergeneous in their
behavior that ‘group average’ is meaningless
– Argues for single case approach
􀂄 Problem with single case approach
– Is pattern observed representative of people in
general?
– Does not allow one to rule out random error

17. 􀂄 Use multiple case approach, validating
research findings on a series of patients, or
􀂄 Follow-up findings from single-case with
group studies

18. (2) Neurologically intact Individuals
􀂄 These persons provide the control group that allows us to determine thedegree to which performance of brain damaged people is compromised
􀂄 Well-designed studies must include appropriate control group

19. (3) Animal Populations 􀂄 Allows for control over
– Environmental conditions/experience
– Size and nature of lesions
– Genetic differences, etc.

20. Gathering Information about the Brain:Techniques
􀂄 CT Scans
– Uses series of X-ray beams through head.
Images developed
on sensitive film. Shows anatomical image
of brain density.
– CSF < brain tissue < blood < bone
– Darker < …………………….> Lighter

21. 􀂄 Advantage:
– Can be used with most people
􀂄 Disadvantage:
– Uses radiation
– Dye may cause allergic reaction
– Results do not have a high spatial resolution
– Structure of brain only

22. MRI
􀂄 Anatomical image of substances such as water or fat - give picture of tissue density
􀂄 Relies on passing an external radio frequency
pulse to disrupt the magnetic fields of nuclei
and distort the behaviors of atoms
􀂄 When atoms fall back in line, they re-emit the
radio-frequency signal which is detected by a
receiver coil
􀂄 The frequency of this signal reflects the
number of elements in the nucleus and the
effect of the surrounding material

23. Advantages 􀂄 Does not require X-rays or radioactive material
􀂄 Safe, painless, non-invasive
􀂄 Result is high resolution

24. Disadvantages 􀂄 Expensive 􀂄 Cannot be used in patients with metallic
devices, like clips, pacemakers, or
possibly orthopedic pins
􀂄 Cannot be used with claustraphobic
patients
􀂄 Assesses structure only

25. Functional MRI 􀂄 In fMRI, MR signal measures functional
characteristics of brain
􀂄 Detects changes in blood flow to
particular areas of the brain
􀂄 Provides both an anatomical and
functional view of the brain

26. Advantages 􀂄 Noninvasive - radiation needed
􀂄 Multiple scans can be done on an
individual so can examine changes over time (e.g., learning)
– Provides a good measure of brain activity over seconds
􀂄 Provides a good spatial resolution

27. Disadvantages Cannot localize processes in time better than 1 second
– fMRI does not image neural activity but rather response of vascular system to oxygen demand and this can lag functional activation as well as extend beyond period when activation occurred

28. PET Also provides a functional image of brain activity
􀂄 Radioactive substance (e.g., glucose)
introduced into blood
􀂄 Radioactive molecule becomes stable by releasing positron, collides with electron, annihilate each other -producing energy - PET detects this energy

29. 􀂄 PET detects how much of the brain fuel
(oxygen, glucose) is being used by different regions
􀂄 Areas that are metabolically active emit
lots of energy; those that are less active
emit less energy

30. 􀂄 Advantages
Good at examining functioning of a variety of
neurotransmitters
􀂄 Disadvantages
Involves radiation
Provides image of brain activity averaged over very long time periods (e.g., minutes whereas cognitive decisions occur in msec)
Typically, data on task is averaged across many people
Not very good at determining location of function in a given person (does not provide high spatial
resolution)

31. EEG 􀂄 Electrical activity of the brain
􀂄 Provides information about general
state of person (e.g., awake)
􀂄 Good at detecting various clinical
disorders
– e.g., sleep, seizures

32. 􀂄 Provides accurate measures of activity
on a millisecond basis
􀂄 But poor at localizing activity
􀂄 Does not provide information about
subcortical structures

33. Event Related Potentials (ERP)
􀂄 Recording of brain’s activity that are linked to
the occurrence of an event (stimulus)
􀂄 Provides information linked to processes
such as memory and attention
􀂄 Examine components of the waveform
recorded on the scalp such as
– P300 - S must respond to target stimulus (‘b’ not ‘d’, blank sound) - appears to measure attention, updating of memory

34. Neuropsychological Assessment
􀂄 Allows one to separate cognitive functions
(e.g., STM vs LTM)
􀂄 Profile patient strengths and weaknesses
– diagnosis
􀂄 Provide a baseline to evaluate change
– e.g., remediation, improvement, decline
􀂄 Make statements about prognosis

35. 􀂄 Fixed batteries
(e.g., Haltead-Reitan, Luria-Nebraska)
􀂄 Flexible battery
􀂄 Generally measure IQ (Wechsler tests)
􀂄 Also measure executive function,
attention, memory, language, spatial
ability, motor, sensory function, emotional function

36. 􀂄 Need good normative data
􀂄 Pre-morbid Estimation
e.g., NART, WTAR