1. Review: Can Sociology be Value-Free?

2. Weber POSITIVISM Watch– don’t judge.
* Sociology should be totally value-free.
* Sociology should study observable stuff: social facts, that can be recorded as quantitative data so correlations can be identified between variables.
* Sociology should be value relevant, but cannot be value-free.
* Sociologists will use their subjective feelings to identify a research topic & the concepts they feel are relevant.
* But sociologists can be objective in how they carry out their research, once they’ve identified concepts.
Watch– don’t judge.

3. Values in the research process:
Operationalising key concepts.
Choosing which topic to research.
Choosing a research method.
Getting funding.
Interpreting findings.
Selecting appropriate questions.
Recording responses.
Selecting which findings to include in the report.
Deciding what report will be used for.
Deciding where report will be published.

4. All these values and considerations make it very hard for Sociologists to remain objective.
They’re conservative.
Civitas are funding my research.
My research will have to agree with them.
So, I’ll have to focus on how absent dads create deviant sons.

5. Don’t bite the hand that feeds you…

6. What did you look at me like that for, you silly sausage.
Interpretivists argue Sociology can’t be value-free because Sociologists are human beings studying other human beings.
What did you look at me like that for, you silly sausage.
They understand the social world through exploring the meanings and motivations of others, using their own experience & verstehen.

7. Different researchers interpret every scenario differently.
Briefly, churn out a sentence about what this fella’s doing here.
Would you go on holiday with him?

8. This is HOWARD BECKER.
He says it’s impossible to study anything without using your personal and political beliefs to understand and judge it.

9. So, researchers do need to state clearly which side they’re on, but it’s a big dilemma.
We can never avoid taking sides because you have to understand what life is like from the perspective of the actor involved.

10. Some Sociological theories are clearly allied to a particular political leaning.
For instance, Marxism is a conflict theory which sees capitalism as problematic for human happiness and fairness.
Marxism is therefore left wing.
Feminism also, is a conflict theory which sees patriarchy as problematic for women’s happiness and fairness.
Feminism also, is therefore left wing.

12. Postmodernists
There is no longer a unifying truth that we all believe…
There are just a number of ‘truths’ or theories for us to pick from.
Sociology can’t be value-free.
Sociology can’t be objective.

13. Review: Relationship between Sociology and Social Policy?

14. Theory and Methods: Is Sociology a Science?

15. Essay Questions (33 Marks)
1. Sociology can be like the natural sciences. To what extent do sociological arguments and evidence.
. “Sociology cannot and should not be a science.” To what extent do sociological arguments and evidence support this view?
3. Assess the arguments for and against the view that sociology is not and will never be a scientific discipline.support this view?

16. Is Sociology a Science?

17. Starter: Is Sociology a Science?
Define Science.
Evidence for and against the statement.
What might Positivist, Interpretivist, Popper, Kuhn, Feminist, Postmodern, Realist writers argue?

18. What is Science?

19. Positivism
Interpretivism
Popper
Kuhn
Realism
Is considered a science?
Can be a science?
Should be a science?

20. Ms B Clip and Liz Voges

21. Positivists They believe that sociology is a science.
They assert that sociologists should aim to uncover social laws, in the same way that a natural scientist uncovers the biological, physical or chemical laws.
However, the positivist sociological approach has been criticised. Many argue that despite a century of research, no ‘scientific’ social laws have been identified.

22. Task: Which of these words do Positivists love and why?
QUALITATIVE DATA
QUESTION-NAIRES
VALUE-FREE
EXPERIMENTS
OBJECTIVE
RAPPORT
QUANTITATIVE DATA
CONTROL
HYPOTHESIS
SUBJECTIVE
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
VERSTEHEN
OFFICIAL STATISTICS
DETACHMENT

23. EVIDENCE THAT SUPPORTS SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE.

24. Positivism
Comte – Sociology is the ‘Queen of the Sciences’. The Enlightenment Objectivity Observable social facts Inductive Reasoning and Verficationism Hypothesis testing Qualitative data General Laws of Cause and Effect Detachment Value Freedom Social Facts as things Durkheim’s Study of Suicide.

25. 1.It’s possible to discover the laws that control and shape the behaviour of people in society.

26. 2. Science isn’t there to tell us why something came into being.
3. Science is there to explain how things relate to each other, using laws. So, Asian lads and the Police don’t relate well because of a social fact called racism (Yes, I know that’s up for debate).

27. Laws of succession: what are the laws that govern social change?
4. The main task of Sociology is to discover general laws of social development;
Laws of co-existence: looking at the relationship between parts of society;
Laws of succession: what are the laws that govern social change?

28. All the apples I’ve ever eaten were SO tasty! This one will be, too…
Inductive Logic is a big part of Positivism, like narcissism, is a big part of Big Brother.
Inductive logic is a type of reasoning about something that involves moving from a set of specific facts to a general conclusion.
All the apples I’ve ever eaten were SO tasty! This one will be, too…
It uses premises from objects that have been examined and experiments that have been conducted to establish a conclusion about an object that has not been examined.

29. Seven steps of Inductive Positivism:
1. Our knowledge about the social world starts with the collection of facts –
For example, the crime rate, the divorce rate and the number of men that are victims of domestic violence.

30. 2. The facts are classified & identified objectively – without using opinion, and statistical relationships established.
Eg. Children from low income households are more likely to become criminal.

31. 3. Once classification has been done, we can look for (study) correlations – where two or more things happen at the same time between different social facts.
For example, a correlation between women being in care and becoming deviant.

32. 4. If positive correlation is found, a cause and effect relationship can be established.
For example, educational failure causes greater likelihood of criminality.

33. 5. Once we’ve sorted out positive correlations and cause and effect relationships, we can develop theories that explain the relationship between different facts.
Eg. Having insufficient integration into society explains why some commit suicide.

34. 6. Once we have a theory – test it further
6. Once we have a theory – test it further. If nothing happens to disprove the theory, we have discovered a universal law of human behaviour.

35. 7. Once a law is identified in human behaviour, we can incorporate it into social policy – we can organise people through laws & legislation that will engineer the best results for society.

36. Durkheim thought Comte had failed to establish Sociology as a science.
Durkheim thought, instead, that Sociology should study social facts as things to observe and measure. So, things like the suicide rate.

37. the basis of positivist science & sociology
Stage 1:
Observation of social phenomena is made
Stage 2:
A hypothesis explaining the phenomena is made
Stage 3:
Evidence is collected in a systematic, objective and RELIABLE fashion to deduce whether the hypothesis is true or not.
Stage 4:
If sufficient data supports the hypothesis, it becomes a theory and eventually a scientific or social law.

38. Activity: What problems are there in the 7 reasons of inductive logic?
Problems with this position so far?

39. Interpretivism

40. In a nutshell…
Interpretivists believe sociology should not model itself on the natural sciences.
The positivist approach is unsuited to human beings.
The subject matter of sociology is meaningful social actions (interactionism).
It is important to interpret these actions and make sense of them.
Interpretivists say sociology is about internal meanings NOT cause and effect – as cause and effect does not always apply to humans.

41. How Sociology is absolutely NOT a science…

42. Interpretivism is THE alternative, THE total opposite of Positivism.
* People like Weber say Sociology should study society from the perspective of other people to understand how and why things happen.
* Using Weber’s perspective of verstehen requires subjective understanding which draws on people’s opinions.
* Science is strongly objective and does not allow opinion to influence research.
* For this reason, Interpretivists argue Sociology cannot ever be a science.

43. Interpretivism
Sociology should NOT model itself on natural sciences. Subject matter of sociology Meaningful social action Sociology is about internal meanings and not external causes. Individuals are not puppets. Verstehen Qualitative Data Case study – Suicide.

44. Example: A car approaches a red light and the driver thinks…
Cause
“Oh, red light…That means I have to slow down and stop”
Effect

45. Is it always that simple?
“I’m late for work…I’ll jump it”
These examples demonstrate that how people act is often determined by the meaning they give to the situation, and how they choose to respond to it.
“I WANT TO RUN THAT OLD LADY DOWN!!!!”
“I’m following that car, I can’t lose it”

46. If a motorist does stop, it is not because of an external force determining their behaviour, it is because they have chosen to stop.
Interpretivists do not see individuals as puppets on a string, that are manipulated by external ‘social facts’.
We are autonomous, and we construct our world by the meanings we choose to give things.

47. Doorbell Human Cause = Press button Effect = Ringing sound
Cause = doorbell rings
Effect = ?

48. “Wow, I feel like I understand your plight so much better now…”
Verstehen

49. Postmodernism (Lyotard, Foucault)
Sociology should NOT be a science. Science is a meta-narrative, with no special claim on the truth. Just another big story. Relativism – There are many truths. Science claims a monopoly of the truth but no objective way of assessing its validity.

50. Feminism / Poststructuralist
Positivist malestream methods are not useful in Sociology as they fail to capture the reality of women’s lives.

51. Beck – Risk Society
Science is not an appropriate model for Sociology. March of Progress Vs Risk Society. Science has created all modern risks and does not innevitably benefit humankind.

52. Karl Popper - FALSIFICATION
Fallacy of the Induction Method. Rejects positivist inductive reasoning and verificationism. Scientific knowledge must be capable of being falsified by the evidence. Science is an open system – open to challenge. A good theory is not necessarily true but it is simply one which has stood up to challenges.

53. Karl Popper thought that all academic subject areas that wanted to be called a ‘science’ should subject themselves to a process of falsification.
To test itself, therefore, Sociology must come up with testable hypotheses, such as; suicide is caused by insufficient regulation and integration.
Karl Popper rejected Marxism as a pseudo-science, because its concepts, such as false class consciousness, were too abstract to be seen and measured.

54. A positivist would claim that after seeing 999 white swans that all swans were white.
This is bad science. They could go to another country, and the 1,000th swan they see could be black

55. Deductive method Inductive method
This starts with a theory.
Then the theory is bombarded with challenges to its hypothesis in order to see if it stands up to its claims.
This starts with a theory.
Then finds loads of evidence to prove itself right.

56. I my theory!

57. Karl Popper There is no such thing as objective truth.
It cannot be discovered and documented.
All knowledge is provisional or temporary (contingent).
No matter how many times an experiment is conducted or a phenomenon is observed, the scientist can never be certain the same results will occur in the future.

58. Karl Popper
Sociology is NOT a science because it has theories which cannot be put to the test / falsified.
Counter:
Sociology COULD be scientific if it develops testable hypotheses?
Sociology is a young science and perhaps its ideas will become testable later.

59. Thomas Kuhn is proudly sitting on the fence of the debate.
In answer to the question, “Is or can Sociology ever be a science?”, his answer is:
Well…yes and no.

60. That’s not how we do things round here!!!
Paradigms
A paradigm is something that is shared by members of a scientific community (eg: Biologists/Physicists)
A paradigm defines what science is and provides a framework of assumptions, principles and methods within which those scientists work.

61. The paradigm is essentially a set of norms and values or the ‘culture of science’. It tells scientists how they should view the world.
Scientists are socialised into this culture, and they accept in uncritically.
They do not consider rival perspectives. For example, biologists and medical professionals are critical of alternative medicines like homeopathy.

62. Kuhn believe there cannot be science until there is one shared paradigm
Until then there are just schools of thought.
Normal science:
This is what occurs when the paradigm goes unquestioned.
Scientists observe a phenomenon, apply questions and their pre-existing knowledge and then fill in the blanks.
For example: A 1,000 piece jigsaw will have a picture of what it should look like on the box. We ‘know’ how to put it together. For Kuhn, normal science is about putting the pieces together to get the known end result.

63. Scientific revolutions:
However, when scientists find that a missing piece of the jigsaw, or many missing pieces, this undermines the paradigm.
If these anomalies build up, confidence in the paradigm starts to decline. Its taken for granted foundations start to crumble.

64. About 100 years ago, Physics hit a crisis...
“It was as if the ground had been pulled out from under one, with no firm foundation to be seen anywhere upon which one could have built” - Einstein

65. New paradigms emerge and they compete with one another.
As they offer alternative explanations for phenomena and a different way of doing things, they cannot be judged on the same grounds, so they continue to compete and refute each other.
To move from one paradigm to another, for a scientist, would be like undergoing a religious conversion.

66. Eventually, one paradigm wins!
Over time it becomes accepted by the scientific community.
Normal science resumes – but using a different set of principles.
New paradigms are initially popular with younger scientists who have fewer credentials – older scientists have more face to lose.

67. What is a science?
According to Khun a science should have a shared set of :
Assumptions
Scientific methods
Terminology
American
Does psychology share these things?

68. What is a science? Science goes through 3 historical stages:
Pre-science
Normal science
Revolutions (Paradigm-shift)
e.g. Einstein, Newton, Galileo, Darwin, shift happens normal science returns.
American Philosopher
Where is psychology?
Justify your answer

69. Paradigm shifts take place when theories in normal science, such as the idea that the MMR jab is totally safe, are challenged by revolutionary scientists such as Andrew Wakefield, who argued it causes autism.
Paradigm shifts are when one (old) way of thinking is shoved away by a newer way of thinking.

70. Paradigm

71. Sociology, then, behaves like it’s in the pre-science stage: there’s no dominant perspective and there are lots of competing theories and perspectives.
It’s totally valid to refer to Sociology as a young science that still needs to find its unifying theory.

72. Kuhn – Scientific Revolutions.
Sociology is NOT a Science. It is a Pre-Science. Sociology could become a science if it could unite around a common paradigm and approach.

73. Popper VS Kuhn Popper: Kuhn: There are no objective truths.
The scientific community is open – progress occurs through challenging assumptions.
Kuhn:
Science is not necessarily open.
Most of the time, scientists are working within rigid frameworks and assumptions – conforming to norms and rules.

74. Realism Keat and Urry (1982)
Closed Systems – Researcher can control all variables and make precise predictions. Open Systems – researcher cannot control and measure all relevant variables so cannot make precise predictions.

75. Realism
Both open and closed systems are scientific. Sociologists study open systems where processes are too complex to make exact predictions but we can still study human behaviour scientifically.
Science studies hidden phenomena by observing their effects. (Gravity). Sociology studies hidden phenomena (Patriarchy, Poverty) by observing their effects. Marxism IS scientific as it is looking at hidden structures of K. by the effects of poverty.

76. Plenary Positivism Interpretivism Popper Kuhn Realism
Is considered a science?
Can be a science?
Should be a science?
Plenary

77. Summary of Theory and Method…

78. 1. Consensus theories see society as a functional unit.

79. 2. Functionalists neglect meanings that individuals give to social situations and don’t give a full account of social conflict.

80. 3. Conflict theories are based on ideology, capitalism and domination.

81. 4. Marxism is criticised for not providing a thorough enough account of social interaction and for having an overly simplified view of power.

82. 5. Conflict theories such as feminism divide into several branches; the key concept of feminism is patriarchy.

83. 6. Feminism has influenced a broad range of sociological research in areas such as the family and the workplace.

84. 7. Consensus and conflict theories explain how social structure shapes individual behaviour.

85. 8. Weber identified four types of action and was influential in the development of the sociology of everyday life.

86. 9. Microsociology is concerned with face-to-face social interaction.

87. 10. Microsociology is criticised for struggling to explain conflict and failing to explain the connections between individuals and society.

88. 11. The structure/action debate is an important debate in Sociology.

89. 12. Classic Sociologists propose concepts to understand the social processes involved in the transition from pre-modern to modern society: anomie, iron cage and alienation.

90. 13. Contemporary Sociologists suggest that the defining features of modernity have changed.

91. 14. Urry argues that the process of globalisation has generated a ‘post-societal stage of Sociology’.

92. 15. Positivism and Interpretivism are different theories of methodology that affect which research methods are used.

93. 16. The Sociology of suicide can be used to highlight the difference between Positivism and Interpretivism.

94. 17. Alternative theories of methodology make assumptions about society and how research should be conducted.

95. 18. Many Sociologists think the purpose of Sociology is to make policy proposals based on research.

96. 19. Some Sociologists are critical of the relationship between Sociology and social policy.

97. 20. Sociologists use a range of methods to do research.

98. 21. Sociological research can contribute to effective social policies.

99. 22. The different research methods produce different types of data with their own strengths and limitations.

100. 23. It is common for researchers to use a range of different data in their research.

101. 24. Sociologists who design research face issues about operationalisation of concepts, data sampling and data collection.

102. 25. Much sociological research involves distinct stages where the validity, reliability and representativeness can be questionned.

103. 26. The science debate divides sociologists and involves a broad range of ideas.

104. 27. Postivists argue that society can be studied objectively and empirically, like natural scientists study natural phenomena.

105. 28. Popper thought that if social sciences were based on falsification, sociology could be accepted as a science.

106. 29. Many sociologists contest the positivist scientific tradition.

107. 30. Sociologists disagree about whether sociology is value-free.

108. 31. Gomm argues that sociology cannot avoid values as society is made up of values, among other things.

109. SOME POTENTIAL QUESTIONS: all 33 marks.
Assess the usefulness of functionalist theory to an understanding of society as a functional unit.
Marxism is no longer relevant to an understanding of contemporary society. To what extent do sociological arguments and evidence support this view?
Assess the usefulness of feminism and feminist research to an understanding of society.
Assess the usefulness of microsociology to our understanding of society.
Assess the extent to which the structure / agency debate has been resolved.
Assess the extent to which theories of modernity are relevant to understanding contemporary society.

110. 7. Assess the extent to which sociological arguments and evidence support the view that society has entered a stage of postmodernity.
Assess the extent to which positivism can be seen as a useful theory of methodology in sociological research.
Alternative theories of methodology are far more useful for gaining an understanding of society today than those used by positivists and interpretivists. To what extent do sociological arguments and evidence support this view of sociological research?
Sociology is not very useful in informing social policy. To what extent do sociological arguments and evidence support this claim?
Assess the view that survey-based research does not produce a valid picture of social behaviour.
Assess the view that qualitative data is the most valid and reliable type of data.

111. 13. Assess the practical, ethical and theoretical factors that sociologists face in conducting research.
14. Sociology can be like the natural sciences. To what extent do sociological arguments and evidence support this view?
15. Assess the extent to which sociology can be value-free and objective.
16. “Sociology cannot and should not be a science.” To what extent do sociological arguments and evidence support this view?
This was the question from the January 2010 exam:
“Feminism has revolutionised sociology by placing women at the centre of its analysis of society. However, while all feminists share this starting point, there are now many different ‘feminisms’ within sociology.”
Assess the contribution of feminist theorists and researchers to an understanding of society today.