Culture Counts A Concise Introduction to Cultural Anthropology

Culture Counts A Concise Introduction to Cultural Anthropology
Serena Nanda Richard L. Warms © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Chapter Outline Cargo Cults Defining Religion Some Functions of Religion Characteristics of Religion Religion and Change Bringing it Back Home: Religion, Art, and Censorship © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Cargo Cults Melanesians and rituals around crashed airplane Cargo cults often began with a prophet who announced that the world would end in catastrophe, after which God would appear and bring a paradise on earth. In the United States and Latin America, millions of followers of prosperity theology, or the Word-Faith movement, believe that God wants Christians to be wealthy (receive cargo). Westerners are obsessed with cargo – have an endless desire for consumer goods © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Religion A social process that helps to order society and provide its members with meaning, unity, peace of mind, and the degree of control over events they believe is possible Reduces social anxiety and gives them a sense of control over their destinies © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Characteristics of Religion
Composed of sacred stories that members believe are important Make extensive use of symbols and symbolism Propose the existence of beings, powers, states, places, and qualities that can not be measured scientifically Include rituals and specific means of addressing the supernatural Has individuals who are experts in religion and serve as guides © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Animism The belief that all living and non-living objects are imbued with spirit Originally believed it was a process of development Animism evolved into polytheism and polytheism developed into monotheism which was considered the most logical and rational belief Developmental process has been discredited Today, religion is viewed in terms of its functions, symbolism, and relation to both social stability and change. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Sacred Narratives Stories of historical events, heroes, gods, spirits, and the origin of all things Members believe them to be holy and true Powerful forms of communication Have a sacred power that is evoked by telling them or acting them out ritually Validate or legitimize beliefs, values, and customs © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Sacred Narratives Sacred narratives provide cosmologies - a system of beliefs that deals with fundamental questions in the religious and social order; framework for interpreting events and experiences This may include the creation of the universe, the origin of society, the relationship of individuals and groups to one another, and the relationship of humankind to nature © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Sacred Narratives Through religion, dominant cultural beliefs about good and evil are reinforced. Sacred stories and rituals provide a rationale for social order and give social values religious authority. Religious ritual intensifies social solidarity by creating an atmosphere in which people experience their common identity in emotionally moving ways. Basis for personal and cultural survival in the face of personal loss or challenges © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Symbols and Symbolism Stories depend on symbolism, which can be expressed through material objects, objects in the physical environment, and performance Religious symbols include many different and sometimes contradictory meanings in a single word, idea, or object. Example: The Christian cross Means life, death, love, sacrifice, identity, history, power, weakness, wealth, poverty The cross carries so many meanings; it has enormous emotional and intellectual power for Christians. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Religious Symbols Some religious symbols may have supernatural power in and of themselves, such as the masks used in African ceremonies. What symbols do you know that contain supernatural power? © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Supernatural Beings, Powers, States, and Qualities
All religions have things (beings, powers, emotional states, or qualities) that exist apart from humans. God (deity) - Term used for a named spirit believed to have created or to control some aspect of the world High gods, gods understood as the creator of the world, are present in only about half of all societies. Non-empirical or supernatural beings and states No scientifically agreed upon way to measure them Many claim to have seen proof of God’s existence – no measurement that would demonstrate the existence of God that would be accepted by everyone Can neither prove nor disprove the existence of God © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Supernatural Beings Polytheism - belief in many gods In India, there are millions of gods; yet all Indians understand that in some way they are all aspects of one divine essence. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Supernatural Beings Monotheism - Belief in a single god In monotheistic religions, one god may have several aspects. In Roman Catholicism: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit are all part of a single, unitary god. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Supernatural Beings Mana is religious power or energy that is concentrated in individuals or objects. Mana gives one spiritual power, but it can also be dangerous. Belief in mana is often associated with an elaborate system of taboos, or prohibitions. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Rituals and Ways of Addressing the Supernatural
Ritual - act involving the manipulation of religious symbols Certain patterns of religious behavior are extremely widespread, if not universal. Religion is enacted through rituals Ceremonial act Repeated stylilzed gesture Telling or acting out sacred stories Use of music, dance, drugs, or pain to induce trance Use of ritual objects to convey religious messages © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

The Power of the Liminal
Many religious symbols used are liminal – refers to those objects, places, people, and statuses that are existing in an indeterminate state, between two clear categories Liminal also refers to the stage of a ritual, particularly a rite of passage, in which one has passed out of an old status but has not yet entered a new one It may also take the form of role reversals (Japan), involving class and gender (Hindu harvest festival) © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

The Power of the Liminal
It is associated with the experiences of communitas (temporary state of equality and oneness) After hurricanes or events such as 911, social distinctions are forgotten; wealthy and poor, powerful and powerless, may have strong experiences of unity and community identity Liminality is associated with anti-structure (temporary dissolution of the established order) (the socially sanctioned use of behavior that radically violates social norms; frequently found in religious ritual) This helps one realize the fullness of the self and the other. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Anti-structure Rituals and symbols that put people in a temporary state of equality and oneness Communitas are communities in which the wealthy and the poor, the powerful and the powerless, are equals for a short time. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Rites of Passage Some rituals are universal cross-culturally. Rites of passage: Public events that mark the transition of a person from one status to another Examples: Marriage Birth Puberty Death © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Rite of Passage Three phases: Separation: Participants are removed from their community or status. Liminal: Participants have passed out of an old status but not yet entered a new one. Reincorporation: Participants return to their community with a new status. Examples: initiation of youth from children to adults; baptisms; quinceaneras; marriages; funerals; military basic training © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Rites of Intensification
Rituals directed toward the welfare of the group or community rather than the individual Structured to reinforce the values and norms of the community and to strengthen group identity In some groups, they are connected with totems. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Totem An object, an animal species, or a feature of the natural world that is associated with a particular descent group Totemism is a prominent feature of the religions of the Australian aborigines. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Prayer, Sacrifice, and Magic
Ways to communicate with the divine/supernatural: Prayer Sacrifice Magic Divination © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Prayer Communication between people and spirits or gods in which there is request or praise People believe results depend on the spirit world rather than on actions humans perform. Prayer may involve those who petition, invoke, praise, give thanks, dedicate, supplicate, intercede, confess, repent, and bless May occur without expectation of response Many different kinds of prayer (words recited; spinning wheels) © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Sacrifice People try to increase their spiritual purity or the effectiveness of their prayers by making offerings to gods or spirits. People may sacrifice the first fruits of a harvest, animal lives, or — on occasion — human lives. Many Americans are familiar with giving up something for Lent, a form of sacrifice intended to help the worshipper identify with Jesus, show devotion, and increase purity. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Magic An attempt to mechanistically control supernatural forces and spirits When people do magic, they believe that their words and actions compel the spirit world to behave in certain ways. Failure is understood as a result of incorrect performance of ritual rather than refusal of spirits to act, as in prayer © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Magic In imitative magic, the procedure performed resembles the result desired. Example: Voodoo doll Contagious magic is the belief that things once in contact with a person or object retain an invisible connection with that person or object. Example: A person’s hair or clothing added to a voodoo doll to make it more effective Americans: signed baseballs, movie star costume, pen used on famous document, Justin Bieber’s hair © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Divination A religious ritual performed to find hidden objects or information from a supernatural authority May be used for many things: Predict the future; Diagnose disease; Find hidden objects; Discover something about the past; Can be used to discover who committed a crime Americans – familiar with tarot cards, palmistry, flipping coins, reading auras, and Magic 8 Ball, crystal ball Makes people more confidant in their choices May be used to allow the community to make a group decision © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Prayer, Sacrifice, Magic, and Divination
Prayer, sacrifice, magic, and divination are all found in most religious traditions. Differentiated by the degree of control that humans believe they exert over the spirit world. Related to risk – the less predictable an outcome is, the greater likelihood these will be used Baseball player rituals for hitting and pitching (least predictable aspects of game) More likely to pray if have not studied enough for test; may even bring lucky pencil © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Religious Practitioners
Every society has people who are believed to have a special relationship with the spiritual/religious/supernatural world Three main types: Shamans Priests Witches and sorcerers © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Religious Practitioners: Shaman
Part-time practitioner; work like other members of the community Recognized as having the ability to mediate between the world of humanity and the world of gods or spirits Not a recognized official of any religious organization Requires arduous preparation and training Personal experiences with the supernatural Use different techniques to achieve trance (prayer, mediation, song, dance, pain, drugs…) Make contact with supernatural for guidance for themselves, heal the sick, or divine the future © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Religious Practitioners - Shamans
Almost all societies have shamans, but they are the only practitioners in foraging and tribal societies Some cultures expect adults to have direct contact with supernatural Native American vision quest © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Religious Practitioners - Shamans
Shamanic curing is still used today and is considered valuable for some things. People go when: Diseases not recognized by Western medicine Lack money to pay for modern medical treatment Have tried modern medical methods and they have failed There are important therapeutic effects: Shamans are often suppressed by state societies or brought under bureaucratic control; can’t have direct contact with supernatural without certification from religious institution; challenges authority of church and state © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Priest One who is formally elected or appointed to a full-time religious office Performs rituals on behalf of others (Rabbis, imams, ministers…) Training and apprenticeship Certified by a hierarchy Associated with high and powerful gods May or may not have ecstatic experiences All societies recognize people who are believed to have a special relationship with the supernatural © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Witchcraft Wiccan: A member of a new religion that claims descent from pre-Christian nature worship; a modern day witch Wicca Witches and sorcerers Religion of nature and worship Threefold law See witchcraft as positive and helpful Usually viewed as evil and source of problems People are concerned when they have to go to them for healing or to solve problems if they are seen as evil © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Witchcraft Physical aspect of a person; generally inherited; body contains magical substance The ability to harm others by harboring malevolent thoughts about them; the practice of sorcery May be done unconsciously © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Sorcery The conscious and intentional use of magic (words and ritual objects) with the intent of causing harm or good Various effects on society Frequent accusations Stigmatized differences to keep society homogenous (if different, likely seen as witch) Women accused more frequently If left alive, they serve as negative role models and warning to others © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

SORCERY Scapegoat to explain misfortune or tragedy European Witch Craze 16th and 17th centuries – thousands died Where government and religious institutions remained strong, few accusations of witchcraft; where institutions collapsed, many accusations 1992 & 1994 – Gusii, Kenya – 57 alleged witches killed © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Religion and Change A force that usually preserves social order; society has been historically right and proper and should stay that way (stratified societies) Can also serve as a catalyst for change; provides people with rationale and motivation for political movement and personal renewal To begin a new religion or modify an existing religion, prophets must have a code with three elements: Identify what is wrong with the world. Present a vision of what a better world to come might look like. Describe a method of transition from the existing world to the better world. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Varieties of Religious Prophecy
Prophets/prophecy often occurs among oppressed groups and those facing rapid social change (i.e. colonization, disease, technology) Nativistic movements aim to restore what its followers believe is a golden age of the past. Example: The Ghost Dance and massacre at Wounded Knee (December 1890) Vitalism is a religious movement that looks toward the creation of a utopian future that does not resemble a past golden age (MLK and I Have a Dream) © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Religious Views Messianic This view focuses on the coming of a messiah who will usher in a utopian world. Millenarian The belief that a catastrophe will signal the beginning of a new age and the eventual establishment of paradise. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Millenarian Holiness Church Rural poor and coal miners in Appalachia Promotes rituals of ecstasy for direct access to supernatural Faith healing, speaking in tongues, drinking poison, handling poisonous snakes Actions demonstrate ability to access to God © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Syncretism Merging two or more religious traditions and hiding the beliefs, symbols, and practices of one behind similar attributes of the other. Example: Santeria Slaves in Cuba combined African religion, Catholicism, and French spiritualism to create a new religion. They identified African deities (called orichas) with Catholic saints. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Fundamentalism Fundamentalism – proclamation of reclaimed authority over a religious tradition that is to be reinstated as an antidote for a society that has strayed International phenomenon Raises questions for anthropologists: With all the different beliefs, what do fundamentalists have in common What local and global forces have encouraged the development of fundamentalism in so many different locations Is fundamentalism a problem and if so, what should be done about it? © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Fundamentalism General Beliefs See religion as a basis for personal and communal identity Believe in single, unified truth They possess and understand the truth Cosmic struggle against evil Feel they are persecuted minority © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Fundamentalism Rise of fundamentalism Likely grew out of changes from the last 50 years. Modern technology Global capitalism Union of disparate cultures; Disruption of communities; Creation of new inequalities Gap between wealthy and poor has grown Governments have been discredited © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Fundamentalism Faced with profound change, people often look to fundamentalism for stability Usually nativistic but not always Must understand local histories and their roles Most are peaceful but some have been involved in murderous violence Some understand the world in absolute terms and see violence as a divinely ordained response © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Bringing it Back Home: Religion, Art and Censorship
A painting by African artist, Chris Ofili, depicts a Black Madonna in a flowing robe, dabbed with a clump of elephant dung and surrounded with images of women’s buttocks and genitals clipped from pornographic magazines. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

A collage by artist Alma Lopez of the Virgin of Guadalupe clad in a floral garment resembling a bikini was included in the CyberArte exhibition at the Museum of International Folk Art in Santa Fe. Singer Madonna staged a mock crucifixion, standing on a mirrored cross wearing a crown of thorns, as part of her concert in Rome in 2000. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

You decide: Do you find this kind of art offensive? Have you ever seen a representation of your religion that you found offensive? What, if anything, did you do about it, and why? © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

You decide: Who should decide if the public representation of a religion is offensive? If the majority in a community find a religious representation offensive, should it be censored? © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

You decide: Is it relevant that all the artists mentioned are Catholic? What do you think might be the intent of the artists in their various representations of their religion? © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Religions provide a ________, a set of principles or beliefs about the nature of life and death, the creation of the universe, the origin of society, the relationship of individuals and groups to one another, and the relation of humankind to nature. ritual practice set of rules cosmology written sacred text © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Answer : c Religions provide a cosmology, a set of principles or beliefs about the nature of life and death, the creation of the universe, the origin of society, the relationship of individuals and groups to one another, and the relation of humankind to nature. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

The liminal stage of ritual is generally a temporary state that may be characterized by all EXCEPT which of the following? Temporary state of equality amongst those of other castes, classes or kinship groups Women and men acting in non-conventional manner Behaviors that reflect and reinforce the status quo © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Trying to develop a definition of “religion” is complicated by all EXCEPT which of the following factors? The distinction between “natural” and “supernatural” varies across societies. Ideas on the nature of life vary whether we live once or repeatedly. All peoples have beliefs and/or engage in processes that provide meaning to their lives and the world. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Answer: c Trying to develop a definition of “religion” is not complicated by the following factor: All peoples have beliefs and/or engage in processes that provide meaning to their lives and the world. © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Examples of contagious magic are illustrated by all EXCEPT which of the following? The practice of the Asaro of New Guinea in burying the newborn’s umbilical cord The reading of a chicken’s entrails in seeking a cause of illness A sorcerer’s obtaining a fingernail clipping of someone he or she wishes to harm © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Culture Counts A Concise Introduction to Cultural Anthropology

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