1. Interest Groups Chapter 11

2. The Role of Interest Groups
An organization of people with shared policy goals entering the policy process at several points to try to achieve those goals
Interest groups pursue their goals in many arenas.
Interest groups are distinct from parties.
Political parties fight election battles; interest groups do not field candidates for office but may choose sides.
Interest groups are policy specialists; political parties are policy generalists.
Why Interest Groups are Common (3 Reasons)
1) Many kinds of cleavages in the country mean that there are many different interests.
2) The Constitution provides many access points to government.
3) Political parties are weak so interests work directly on government.

3. Theories of Interest Group Politics
Pluralist Theory
Politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred policies.
Elite Theory
Societies are divided along class lines and an upper-class elite rules, regardless of the formal niceties of governmental organization.
Hyperpluralist Theory
Groups are so strong that government is weakened. This is an extreme, exaggerated form of pluralism.
Pluralist
Argues that interest group activity brings representation to all.
Elite Theory
Argues the few (mainly the wealthy) have most of the power.
Hyperpluralist
Argues that too many groups are getting too much of what they want, resulting government policy that lacks direction.

4. Theories of Interest Group Politics
Pluralism and Group Theory
Groups provide a key link between the people and the government.
Groups compete and no one group will become too dominant.
Groups play by the “rules of the game.”
Groups weak in one resource may use another.
Lobbying is open to all so is not a problem.

5. Theories of Interest Group Politics: Pluralism
Elites and the Denial of Pluralism
Real power is held by the relatively few.
The largest corporations hold the most power.
Elite power is fortified by a system of interlocking directorates of these corporations and other institutions.
Other groups may win many minor policy battles, but elites prevail when it comes to big policy decisions.
Lobbying is a problem because it benefits the few at the expense of the many.

6. Theories of Interest Group Politics: Elitism

7. Theories of Interest Group Politics: Hyperpluralism
Subgovernments
Networks of groups that exercise a great deal of control over specific policy areas.
Consist of interest groups, government agency, and congressional committees that handle particular policies
Also known as iron triangles
The hyperpluralist critique
Groups have become too powerful as the government tries to appease every interest.
Many subgovernments (iron triangles) aggravate the process.
Trying to please every group results in contradictory policies.

8. What Makes an Interest Group Successful?

9. What Makes an Interest Group Successful?
The Surprising Ineffectiveness of Large Groups
Potential group: all the people who might be interest group members because they share a common interest
Actual group: the part of the potential group consisting of members who actually join
Collective good: something of value that cannot be withheld from a group member

10. What Makes an Interest Group Successful?
Free-Rider Problem
Some people don’t join interest groups because they benefit from the group’s activities without officially joining.
Bigger the group, larger the problem
Large groups are difficult to organize
Olson’s law of large groups:
“The larger the group, the further it will fall short of providing an optimal amount of a collective good.”
Overcome Olson’s law by providing selective benefits: Goods that a group can restrict to those who pay their annual dues

11. What Makes an Interest Group Successful?
Small groups are better organized and more focused on the group’s goals.
Multinational corporations are successful because there are few of them and, therefore, have an easier time organizing for political action.
Consumer groups have a difficult time getting significant policy gains because the benefits are spread over the entire population.
Public interest lobbies seek “a collective good, the achievement of which will not selectively and materially benefit the membership activities of the organization.”
The Problem of Bias
Those who are more affluent are more likely to join and be active.
Business/professional groups are more numerous and better financed than those representing minorities, consumers, or the disadvantaged.

12. What Makes an Interest Group Successful?

13. What Makes an Interest Group Successful?
Intensity
Single-Issue groups: groups that focus on a narrow interest, dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics
Groups may focus on an emotional issue, providing them with a psychological advantage.
Intensity encourages non-conventional means of participation, i.e.—protests

14. What Makes an Interest Group Successful?
Financial Resources
Not all groups have equal amounts of money.
Monetary donations usually translate into access to the politicians, such as a phone call, meeting, or support for policy.
Wealthier groups have more resources—and presumably more access—but they do not always win on policy.
Funds for Interest Groups
Foundation grants
One study found that 1/3 of public interest lobbying groups received more than half of all their funds from foundation grants
Federal grants and contracts
Expansion of federal grants in 1960s and 1970s benefited interest groups; cutbacks in 1980s hurt them
Direct mail: through the use of computers, mail is sent directly to a specialized audience.
But this approach is also expensive—it must generate checks from at least 2 percent of the people contacted.

15. The Interest Group Explosion

16. How Groups Try to Shape Policy
Lobbying
“communication by someone other than a citizen acting on his own behalf, directed to a governmental decisionmaker with the hope of influencing his decision”
Two basic types of lobbyists:
Regular, paid employees of a group
Temporary hires

17. How Groups Try to Shape Policy
Lobbying
Lobbyists:
are a source of information
help politicians plan political strategies for legislation
help politicians plan political strategies for reelection campaigns
are a source of ideas and innovations
Mixed evidence as to whether lobbying works

18. How Groups Try to Shape Policy
Electioneering
Direct group involvement in the election process
Groups can help fund campaigns, provide testimony, and get members to work for candidates; some form PACs.
Political Action Committee (PAC): Political funding vehicles created by 1974 campaign finance reforms, PACs are used by interest groups to donate money to candidates.
PACs help pay the bill for increasing campaign costs.
Most PAC money goes to incumbents.
Money and PACs
PAC: a committee set up to raise and spend money on campaigns and candidates.
Money is the least effective way to influence politicians.
The campaign finance reform law of 1973 restricted donations.
The rapid growth in PACs has probably not led to vote buying.
Ideological PACs raise more money, but raising the money also consumes it, so less is available to give to campaigns and candidates.
In , unions and business or professional organizations gave the most.
Incumbents get the most PAC money.
There is no systematic evidence that PAC money influences votes in Congress.
Most members vote in line with their ideology and with their constituents.

19. How Groups Try to Shape Policy
Litigation
If an interest group fails in one arena, the courts may be able to provide a remedy.
Interest groups can file amicus curiae briefs to influence a court’s decision.
amicus curiae: briefs submitted by a “friend of the court” to raise additional points of view and present information not contained in the briefs of the formal parties
Class Action lawsuits permit a small number of people to sue on behalf of all other people similar situated.

20. How Groups Try to Shape Policy
Going Public
Because public opinion makes its way to policymakers, groups try to:
cultivate a good public image to build a reservoir of goodwill with the public
use marketing strategies to influence public opinion of the group and its issues
advertise to motivate and inform the public about an issue

21. Types of Interest Groups
Economic Interests
Labor
Agriculture
Business
Environmental Interests
Equality Interests
Consumer and Public Interest Lobbies
Social movement: a widely shared demand for change in the social or political order, either liberal or conservative.
Examples include the environmental and feminist movements.
Unions continued activism after their social movement died, but sustaining membership is difficult.

22. Understanding Interest Groups
Interest Groups and Democracy
James Madison’s solution to the problems posed by interest groups was to create a wide-open system in which groups compete.
Pluralists believe that the public interest would prevail from this competition.
Elite theorists point to the proliferation of business PACs as evidence of interest group corruption.
Hyperpluralists maintain that group influence has led to policy gridlock.

23. The “Revolving Door”
Federal government workers leave to take more lucrative positions in private industry (lobbying, consulting, executive positions).
This may give private interests a way to improperly influence government decisions.

24. Understanding Interest Groups
Interest Groups and the Scope of Government
Interest groups seek to maintain policies and programs that benefit them.
Interest groups continue to pressure government to do more things.
As the government does more, does this cause the formation of more groups?

25. Regulating Interest Groups
A 1995 act provided a broader definition of lobbying and tightened reporting requirements.
Tax code; nonprofits lose tax-exempt status if a “substantial part” of their activities involve lobbying.
Campaign-finance laws limit donations by individual PACs.