1. First Civilizations
Chapter 2 – Cities, States, and Unequal Societies (3,500 B.C.E. – 600 B.C.E.)

2. What is a civilization?
Immense productivity creates a type of human society.
Cities with populations in the tens of thousands.
Organized, powerful states that demand obedience.
Monumental architecture and written literature.
Much greater inequality: - economic. - social.

3. First Civilizations

4. First Civilizations The earliest emerged around 3,500-3,000 B.C.E.
Sumer (southern Mesopotamia). - First written language: cuneiform.
The Nile River Valley (Egypt).
- Pharaohs and pyramids.
Norte Chico (Peru) smaller urban centers. - Little agriculture. - Quipus. - Lack of defensive walls. Less warfare?

5. Mesopotamia

6. Norte Chico (Peru)

7. First Civilizations
Indus Valley (Pakistan and India); 2000 B.C.E. - Planned cities and grid system. - Standardized weights and measures. - A caste system?
China (Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties); B.C.E. - Centralized state (Wu). - Mandate of Heaven. - Oracle bones (writing).
Olmec (Gulf of Mexico); 1200 B.C.E. - First written language in the Americas (900 B.C.E.). - They eventually influenced the Mayans.

8. Oracle Bones (Shang China)

9. Olmec Heads

10. Origins of the First Civilizations
The need for warfare, trade; large irrigation projects?
Competition led to warfare and innovation. - The plow was developed. - War victors absorbed the losers into their civilization as subordinate workers.
Features of the first civilizations: - Large cities. - Job specialization and an agricultural ec0nomy. - Cultural arts center, exchanges, and politics.

11. The Erosion of Equality
Upper Class: - Great wealth, no physical labor. - Distinguished by clothes, homes, burial, government positions, and special treatment under law.
Lower Class: - The majority of people, workers. They supported the upper classes. - Slavery emerged within these civilizations. - Slaves were conquered people, criminal, or debtors; not determined by skin color.

12. Hierarchies of Gender
Civilization undermined gender equality. - More intensive agriculture (plowing). - Women were associated with home and nature. - Men were physically stronger for warfare.
Women’s activities became restricted: - They could not inherit property. - Men exchanged female slaves. - Concubines could be bought or sold. - Females could not initiate divorce.

13. The Rise of the State
Reasons for the emergence of central authority: - irrigation systems, defense, and adjudication.
Rule by divine authority. - In China, “Mandate of Heaven.” In Egypt, the pharaoh held divine qualities.
Writing (Ex – Hammurabi’s Law Code): - accounting, tax collection, propaganda; astronomy.
Kings and high officials: - grand monuments, luxurious palaces, splendid clothes; elaborate burials.

14. Mandate of Heaven

15. Cuneiform

16. Mesopotamia and Egypt Map

17. Comparing Egypt and Mesopotamia – Environment and Culture
Both depended on rivers: - The Nile in Egypt was more predictable. - Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia was erratic.
Mesopotamia less geographically isolated. - More prone to invasion than Egypt. - More pessimistic global outlook due to more threats.
Environmental Difficulties. - In Mesopotamia, soil erosion, deforestation, salinization, and invasions/conquests. - In Egypt, more continuities since more advanced and sustainable agriculture.

18. Comparing Mesopotamia and Egypt – Cities and States
Mesopotamia (Sumer): - separate city-states each ruled by a king; rivalries % of population lived in city-states for protection. - outside forces and environmental factors led to conquered city-states beginning in 2300 B.C.E.
Egypt: - began around 3100 B.C.E. as a unified territory. - Egypt was unified and independent for 3,000 years. - travel and settled villages along the Nile helped unification efforts.

19. Old Kingdom – Pyramids at Giza

20. The Pharaoh Viewed as God in human form.
Linked to flooding of the Nile and the sun’s rising.
Connected people to the afterlife: - mummification.
Discredited around 2200 B.C.E. when Nile didn’t flood. - Between B.C.E. – state of anarchy and rule via local principalities. - The pharaoh was restored in 2000 B.C.E. but never regained the same clout.

21. Comparing Mesopotamia and Egypt – Interaction and Exchange
Both Mesopotamia and Egypt frequently interacted, and with their neighbors.
Egypt benefited from Mesopotamia: - agriculture, for example, wheats and barley. - writing: adapted cuneiform into hieroglyphics.
Interactions: - Mesopotamia traded with Anatolia, Egypt, Iran, and Afghanistan. - Egypt traded with Nubia and African east coast.

22. Cultural Influences Along Trade Routes
The Hebrews migrated from Mesopotamia to Palestine and Egypt. – monotheism emerged: the Old Testament.
The Phoenicians: - adapted cuneiform into the first alphabet of 22 characters; basis for Greek and Latin writing.
Nubia borrowed from Egypt: - pyramids, hieroglyphics, and gods.
Egyptian influence in Minoan art (Crete).

23. Mesopotamia and Egypt – Influenced by their Neighbors
Hittites (Anatolia) brought chariots to Mesopotamia and sacked Babylon in 1595 B.C.E.
Egypt’s conflicts with the Hittites and other foreigners: - led to the use of chariot technology. - brought in new armor and weapons, using metallurgy. - developed new methods of spinning and weaving. - adopted olive and pomegranate trees.
By 1500 B.C.E. Egypt was an imperial state: - rule over non-Egyptians in Africa and Middle East.

24. Egyptian Empire

25. Reflections
A. Debate on terminology: Many scholars do not use the term “civilization.”
B. Ambiguous views of civilization: Some critics do not believe that civilization was necessarily a good thing.
C. Are civilizations solid?: Some critics points out that there are no clear definitions of civilization or distinctions between civilized and non-civilized societies.

26. Mummification and Civilization Video